Nehen (Hieraconpol)
Nehen (Greek Hierakonpol) is the political center of Upper Egypt of the pre-dynastic era (c. 3700-3100 BC). e.), as well as, possibly, a religious center at the beginning of the Early Kingdom (c. 3100-2686 BC).
The main articles are:
Nehen, located 80 km south of modern Luxor and consisted of a multi-kilometer chain of villages and cemeteries in the Wadi Abu Sufyan channel and along the Nile, their sharp social stratification was traced.
In Nehen, the oldest burials in Egypt with mummification elements, the oldest of the famous ceremonial centers of Egypt, breweries and other buildings dating back to the pre-dynastic era of Egypt were also discovered.
Later in Nehen, one of the hypostases of the Choir in the form of a mummy was revered. Nothing is known about this deity and his cult, except for the very fact of their existence.
The Greek name of the city is Hieraconpol, Hierákōn pólis is the city of a hawk or falcon, a reference to the god Horus.
Later, Nehen is the capital of the III Upper Egyptian nome of the same name (Nehen).
Later monuments include rock tombs of dignitaries with reliefs and paintings from the late Old to the late New Kingdom (Nianchpepi, Horemhauef, Khormeni, Hormes, etc.).
Archeological Zone Maps
As of 2026, Nehen is two separate archaeological zones. One is a low grassy hill located in the middle of cultivated land. These are the remains of the city and temple hill of the dynastic settlement of Nehen. The other zone is a collection of interconnected archaeological sites extending through the lowland desert and representing the multi-component pre-dynastic settlement of Nehen.
Geological studies have shown that before the large-scale land reclamation work in the classical period that separated these two archaeological zones, they were part of one continuous settlement, expanding and declining over time.
The incredible variety and huge volume of pre-dynastic artifacts make Nehen a unique phenomenon in Egypt.
The settlement of Nehena has been continuously inhabited since at least the Badarian period (c. 4500 BC), as evidenced by deep cores drilled to a depth of 4 m below the water table in the town mound at Nehena (square 10N5W).
Its heyday clearly occurred in the period around 3700-3500 BC, when the settlement was not limited to the floodplain. (which may have been an island at the time), where the Narmera tent was found, but spread to a low-lying desert, where the remains of a pre-dynastic settlement extend more than 3 km along the edge of the desert and almost 2.5 km deep into the large wadi (Wadi Abu Suffian) that crosses the settlement. Drilling and geological studies show that the pre-dynastic settlement was present in the treated area, but unfortunately it is now buried deep underground and its full scale is unclear.
In 1981, and then in 1984, Barbara Adams and Walter Fairsurvis excavated in Nehen. After the death of Michael A. Hoffman in 1990, Adams and Renee Friedman became co-leaders of the excavation of the monument, which lasted until 1996. Adams discovered previously unknown burial masks and life-size statues.
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20th century: The export of hundreds of Egyptian skulls to Britain and the United States
In 1934-1935, Ambrose Lansing of the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art (MMA) led the excavation at Nehen. He discovered about 200 pre-dynastic burials near the walls of the Hasehemui structure. Earlier, Quibell and Green brought hundreds of skulls from the site, which are now in Cambridge. The skulls found by Lansing were returned to the graves. He planned to do the research later, but never did.
XIX century: Destruction of the Ptolemaic temple for the use of stone in the construction of a sugar factory in Esna
The first archaeological description of Nehen was compiled by Dominic Vivan Denon, one of the scholars who accompanied Napoleon in the military campaign in Egypt from 1798 to 1799. He described the ruins of a large Ptolemaic temple that have survived to this day. The temple was destroyed in the middle of the 19th century, when its sandstone blocks were used as construction material for a sugar factory in Esna.
VI dynasty
Pepi I: The oldest known life-size metal sculpture of a man in the temple of the Choir
In an underground vault under the floor of the Ka Chapel of Pepi I in Nehen, Egyptologist James Quibell discovered a statue of King Hasehemuya; a gold mask depicting Horus (see below); and two copper statues. Initially, these statues were made by minting copper plates on a wooden base, then they were dismantled, placed one in another and sealed with a thin layer of engraved copper with titles and names of Pepi I "on the first day of the holiday of Heb Sed."
Two statues symbolically "trampled Nine Bows" - the enemies of Egypt - a stylized image of foreigners conquered by Egypt. Although the inscription indicates that the larger statue depicts Pepi I, the identity of the smaller statue depicting a young man remains unclear. For 2025, it is generally accepted that this statue depicts Pepi in his youth, although it was originally assumed that it depicts his son and successor Merenre I.
Along with the statues of Pepi, a charming lion figurine made of polished red ceramics was found.
2335 BC: The golden falconry of the Choir in his temple
Among many other valuable finds in the temple in Nehen, archaeologists found the golden head of the Choir, which may belong to the VI dynasty (c. 2345-2323 BC).
The statue had realistic obsidian eyes and a high headdress with two feathers. Quibell discovered her in a pit dug under the floor of one of the five rooms of the temple. Unfortunately, the thin copper plates that made up Hoare's body cracked, but they were saved, and were later artfully restored along with a long copper staff. The head of the Choir is now on display in its original form at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, which allows you to see a real cult statue.
2686 BC: Construction of mud brick by King Hasehemuya, predecessor of Pharaoh Joser
Above the low desert of Nehena rises an impressive structure of clay bricks dried in the sun. It is the oldest freestanding monumental structure of mud bricks and one of the earliest surviving examples of the rich and long Egyptian tradition of clay brick construction that paved the way for better-known stone architecture.
This structure, known by the erroneous name "fort," is also the only monumental building preserved in Nehen.
Thanks to a laser scan conducted in 2012, the fort can now be seen from all sides here.
The building has survived in places almost to its original height of 10 m. Outside it is decorated with a number of raised pilasters, forming niche "palace facades," familiar from the royal earrings of the early dynasties. Initially, it was covered with shiny white plaster, traces of which have survived to this day. This must have been an impressive spectacle for its time, and 4,600 years later this monument serves as a testament to the skill of its builder, King Hasehemuya, the last king of the Second Dynasty (circa 2686 BC).
For its structure and ritual purpose, it looks like erroneously called "forts" structures built in Abju (Abydos), which did not have an obvious military function. The true purpose of these structures is unknown, but apparently they are associated with the rituals of royal power.
The building is certainly associated with ceremonial structures erected next to the royal cemeteries of the early dynasties in Abju to house their funerary cults, but differs from them in many aspects. Hasehemui was among those who built the largest clay brick burial structure in Abju. Covering an area of 1.07 hectares, it also survives almost to its original height and is known as Shunet es Zebib (raisins repository). More than twice the size of the "fort" of Nehen, it is supplemented by an equally huge desert tomb.
Only these three structures give this king the right to be called the first of the great builders of Egypt, and increasing evidence indicates that this was not all that he was capable of. Lessons learned from mobilizing labour and materials allowed Hasehemui's immediate successor, Joser, to build the first of these, the Step Pyramid at Saqqara (see History of Ancient Egypt).
However, why Hasehemui needed two huge brick structures remains unclear. The standard explanation is that during the transitional reign of the Second Dynasty, Egypt experienced the first test of its unity, and in the second half of the dynasty the country was ruled by rival kings. Hasehem (meaning "is power"), as he was originally called, is supposed to have first ruled as one of these kings, possibly from Nehen, given the number of fine statues, stone vessels, steles, and architectural elements bearing his early name found in the temple at Nehen.
He may have originally planned to be buried in Nehen and began to build his burial structure, but after defeating his rivals and taking control of all of Egypt, he changed his name to Hasehemui (meaning "there are two forces") and built a new structure and tomb at Abju, the traditional burial place of the Early Dynasties kings, the last of whom he was.
This is a plausible theory, but the isolation of the two stages of the construction of the " fort" suggests that the story may not be as simple. Deep inside the walls can be found the fort inside the fort: an earlier version, with walls only 2.1 m thick, but with niches and pilasters inherent in this structure. The height of the walls of this first stage reached only about 2.5 m, when the plans were apparently changed, and the walls were expanded to 5 m thick by adding bricks on both sides, and then brought to the final height as a single, integral structure.
Unfortunately, it is not yet possible to determine the length of time, if any, between the two stages. Although the bricks used in the two stages vary in size and especially in formulation, the architectural plan and details of the decorative masonry remained exactly the same, suggesting that the same ruler was responsible for both stages. Only a low perimeter wall, originally surrounding the monument on all sides (this feature is inherent only in Shunet Hasehemui in Abju), was added later and built exclusively from brick of the second stage. Passing across the main entrance, it prevented an axial approach, and exactly how you could get into the complex is still unclear. The location of the opening in the perimeter wall and its trajectory along the east side of the monument are just two of the many mysteries that have yet to be solved.
Although it is possible that the construction of the fort began at the beginning of the king's reign for one reason and was completed later for another, from the very beginning the fort had many unique features that suggest that it may never have been intended for funerary purposes.
A unique feature of the fort is also the artfully carved stone decorations that adorned the mysterious structure within it. Among the surviving fragments is the massive base of a pink granite column (one of the earliest examples of the architectural use of granite), which in 2012 was the center of rituals conducted by local women to ensure the birth of a boy (seven jumps through the column, followed by the distribution of sprouted grain).
It was originally one of two bases, each having a recess in the centre to accommodate a massive wooden column supporting the roof of the now poorly preserved interior structure.
This imposing structure may have been built to commemorate the king's revival festival, or perhaps even the reunification of the lands under his administration and the grand feast when Hasehem was revived as Hasehemui. Indeed, what better place for such a celebration than the abode of the patron saint of Egyptian kingship, the Choir of Nehen?
However, the evidence for this theory is difficult to find primarily due to the barbaric excavations of the first British digger archaeologists. Their destructive activities caused significant damage to the structure, lowering the level of the earth around and inside the walls and exposing the foundation for erosion, subsidence and other processes. Another collapse of the northeast corner took place in 2002.
For two years, from 2005 to 2006, the Friedman-led team tried to stabilize the existing structure and strengthen its most vulnerable sites with new clay bricks.
Gradual displacement of the regional center 15 km south to Edfu. The main population moves to Neheb on the other side of the Nile
After the unification of ancient Egypt, Nehen in the 3rd millennium BC. e. gradually gave way to the role of a large regional center located 15 km south of Edfu.
Nehen was undoubtedly a central place during the pre-dynastic and early dynastic periods, but for reasons that are not entirely clear, during the Old Kingdom era, it seems that the main population of the city moved to the other side of the Nile in the city of Neheb (El Qab).
3110 BC: Paletka and mace of Narmera
Nehen also became the site of the discovery of the Narmer tent and the Narmer mace. It has been suggested that these items were donated to the temple by the king, who ruled before in Tinis (see Sohag).
On both sides of the tent there are relief images of Pharaoh Narmer. It is performed in the form of a victorious stele and possibly tells about the triumphal victory of Upper Egypt over Lower. It is a gift from the king of the First or Zero Dynasty to a temple in Nehen that perpetuated his victory over the rebellious Libyan nomes in the Western Nile Delta.
Narmer is depicted in the white crown of Upper Egypt, striking with a mace a resident of the northwestern part of the Delta ("Harpoon Region"), and reports the capture of 6 thousand prisoners. On the reverse side, he appears in the red crown of Lower Egypt, solemnly marching, surrounded by a retinue, to the decapitated corpses of enemies.
On Narmer's palette, two sickles wrap their necks around each other. This painting is believed to allegorically depict the unification of Egypt.
It has also been suggested that long-necked sickles form a protective barrier between the afterlife and the human world. On some sticks, such as Narmer's, their necks are bordered by a circle in which paints were mixed. Since these paints were applied to statues of deities or pharaohs, they had to meet certain standards and be protected.
Serpopard was designated by the word Svja, which means "indestructible." In Egyptian mythology, the serpopard was described as "the one who moves the sun."
The tip of the Narmer mace was found by James Quibell in Nehen in 1898, along with the Narmer palette.
It is believed that it was dated around the end of the XXXII century BC. e. and could indeed be used by Narmer, but it is unlikely that he used a mace weighing 10 kg with a carved pattern in battle, rather it was a ceremonial weapon or sign of power.
Pear-shaped clubs are considered an innovation, also coming from Mesopotamia and replacing the original Egyptian disc-shaped club. The Mesopotamian mace was much heavier, with a wider impact surface and could deliver much more destructive blows. For more on the influence of Mesopotamia on the art of Dodinastic Egypt, see Sohag.
On the other hand, Egypt began to exert some influence on the art of Mesopotamia during the early dynastic period in Mesopotamia (2900-2334 BC). This is especially true of royal iconography: the figure of the king hitting his enemies with a mace, and the image of dead enemies devoured by birds of prey, appeared in Egypt during the time of the Narmer tent, and then, centuries later (possibly from Egypt), were adopted by the Mesopotamian rulers Eannatum and Sargon of Akkad. For an interpretation of some of the plots depicted on the mace, see below in the section on the center of the HK29a.
Another example is the use of decorated finial clubs as a symbol of royal authority, which also began to be practiced first in Egypt and later in Mesopotamia.
Abju subjugates Nehen and becomes the capital of Egypt
Some authors suggest that the reliefs of the so-called knife from Gebel-el-Arak depict a battle between warriors from the cities of Abju (Abydos) and Nehen, the two main rival Egyptian cities of that period. It is believed that the winner was Abju, who united a significant part of Egypt under his rule during the Nekad II period. For more information about the knife, see Sohag.
Scorpio II - king or one of the names of Narmer-Menes. Possible ruler of Nehen and unifier of Egypt
Main article: Dodinastic Egypt
Scorpio II, also known as King Scorpio, was a ruler during the Protodynastic period of Upper Egypt (c. 3200-3000 BC).
There are several theories regarding his personality and chronological position. Some Egyptologists, such as Bernadette Menu, argue that since the Egyptian kings of the First Dynasty apparently had several names, Scorpio was the same person as Narmer, simply with a different name or additional title. They also argue that the artistic style in which the Scorpio II mace is made bears a noticeable resemblance to the style of the famous Narmer mace.
Other scholars, including T. H. Wilkinson, Rene Friedman and Bruce Trigger, believe that King Scorpio II was the opposing ruler of Narmer and Ka (or Sehen). During the time of Scorpio II, Egypt was divided into several small kingdoms that fought with each other. It is also assumed that Narmer conquered the kingdoms of Ka and Scorpio II, thereby uniting all of Egypt for the first time.
Temple of the God of the Choir on the site of the ceremonial complex HK29a
At the end of the Negada II period, the pre-dynastic ceremonial complex of HK29a (see below) was abandoned, and a temple was built in its place in the city limits of Nehen.
It is believed that at the earliest stage of construction, the temple was a round wall of mud brick, surrounding a large hill of pure sand, which was supported by limestone blocks and on which the sanctuary of the Early Dynasty may have been located. Several limestone fragments have been found inside the stone wall, which may have been statue pedestals or the bases of large columns. It is assumed that a number of reconstructions were carried out up to the 2nd millennium BC. e. The sanctuary remained the core of a small city of dynastic time.
Archaeologist James Quibell excavated the site in 1898. He discovered the so-called. "Main Repository" - a remarkable and diverse treasure with votive materials, consisting of hundreds of artifacts - in a series of pits and chambers dug under a mud brick temple from the Old Kingdom.
A treasure of votive objects was found in the temple, including:
- the top of the clubs of the pharaohs of the 0 dynasty "Scorpio" and "Narmera,"
- "Narmer's palette,"
- 2 sitting statues of Pharaoh II of the Hasehem dynasty with carved records of the destruction of about 47 thousand inhabitants of Lower Egypt,
- copper statues of pharaoh of the VI dynasty Pepi I and, possibly, his son Merenre,
- the golden head of the falcon - the god Hora,
- bone figures,
- stone and ceramic vessels, etc. (see photographs of the finds above in this article).
The temple of the Choir in Nehen remained an important cult place even after the city itself lost the importance of the center of the state
On the east bank of the Nile, almost against Nehen, was the city of Neheb. Here the goddess was Nehbet - a white kite.
The tops of the maces of King Scorpio
The only pictorial evidence of the existence of Scorpio II is the tip of the Scorpio mace, found in the Main Vault of the Choir Temple in Nehen by archaeologists James E. Quibell and Frederick W. Green during excavations in 1897-1898. The find is on display at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. The stratigraphy of this club top was disturbed due to the methods used in excavations, but judging by the style, it dates back to the very end of the pre-dynastic period.
Scorpio II could be the ruler of Nehen, which explains why the mace was found in Nehen.
On the top of the Scorpio mace is one large figure in the White Crown of Upper Egypt. The man holds a hoe in his hands, which is interpreted as a ritual during which the pharaoh either solemnly plows the first furrow in the fields or opens the dams to flood them. The use and location of iconography is similar to the image of Pharaoh Narmer on the front of the Narmer tent.
The king is preceded by servants, the first of whom seems to throw seeds from the basket into the freshly excavated earth. The second servant (his image is partially damaged) carries a huge sheaf of ears, which confirms the version of the seed sowing ceremony, possibly associated with the Sed holiday or the foundation ceremony.
The king (on the left side) is followed by two fan-bearers. To the left of the fan-bearer are papyrus ligaments. Behind them, in the upper part, a group of dancers and a priest are visible. The lower part is lost due to damage.
If you look at the entire scene, you can see that both processions meet in the center of the entire relief. In this very center, according to scientists such as K. M. Tsyalovich, E. J. Baumgertl and T. H. Wilkinson, you can see tiny traces of the legs and curls of the Red Crown; a second gold rosette is also clearly visible. The traces confirm the assumption that a second person was once depicted on the top of the Scorpio mace - the king in the red crown of Lower Egypt. In this case, the top of the Scorpio mace depicts King Scorpio II as the ruler of all of Egypt.
A series of standard bearers lined up above the servants in front of the king, who carry the same standards as on the Narmer tent.
A pallet with two dogs
A pallet with two dogs was found in Nehen by British archaeologists James Quibell and Frederick W. Green in the so-called Main Vault of the Choir Temple during excavations in 1897-1898.
The front of the pallet, made in low relief, features two African wild dogs above, two serpopards licking or rubbing a gazelle framing a mixing circle, and saluks attacking mountain goats below.
The image with a long neck, which the researchers called the serpopard (there are no references to these animals in the texts), was widely used in the design of cylindrical seals during the Uruk era in Mesopotamia (c. 3500-3000 BC) and in Elam.
Under Scorpio II, two sickles torment the gazelle, which may mean that the sickles were under the control of the king (they attacked on command).
On the back of the pallet is an image of a griffin, the earliest known in ancient Egyptian art. The griffin is depicted with wings similar to a ridge.
The "winged chimeras" were named Sefer in Egyptian and represented chaos and violence. They are depicted on a pallet with two dogs and on several ivory products. Scientists point to the fact that creatures such as chimeras and snakes were of Mesopotamian origin.
At the bottom of the reverse side is a figure with the head of a jackal, in a belt or penis cover, playing the flute. Perhaps this is a shaman in an animal mask.
Although we will never know for sure what the striking iconography on the Two Dogs palette really means, its artfully carved decoration suggests a royal and divine power that brings order and controls chaos.
Tomb 100 is the only known example of pre-dynastic wall painting
In 1899, Frederick Greene, who worked in Nehen, made his own impressive and extremely important discovery. Exploring a pre-dynastic cemetery with more than 200 burials, mainly dating back to the Negad II period, or the "Gerzean" period (circa 3500-3200 BC). e.), he unexpectedly stumbled upon five large tombs made of mud brick.
The "tomb of the leader" ("tomb 100") of the Negad II period with the only known example of pre-dynastic wall painting.
It is believed to date from about 3300-3150 BC. It has characteristic images similar to artifacts of the Gerzean culture.
Tomb 100 and several burials surrounding it formed an isolated group - a small elitist necropolis. The tomb measures 5,85×2,85 m, being the largest among the tombs dating back to the Negad IIC3 period. Dating is based on objects found in the burial, characteristic of this time. This is a fragment of a beautifully retouched flint knife with a top in the form of a swallow or fish tail (the so-called pss-kf knife, used in the rite of "opening the mouth"), as well as ceramics.
The mural depicts six huge boats with curved noses, around which there are smaller scenes with figures of people and animals. The main theme that unites all these scenes is hunting and war. The scenes are painted in black, white and red on a buff background, and the hulls of some boats are covered with green malachite.
It is assumed that the fresco depicts religious scenes and images. On it you can see figures that have been part of Egyptian culture for three thousand years:
- a funeral procession of boats,
- presumably a goddess standing between two lionesses,
- a wheel of various horned tetrapods,
- several images of the staff that became associated with the deity of the oldest cattle culture, and
- one staff held by a lush-chested goddess.
Among the animals depicted are zebras, capricorns, ostriches, lionesses, impalas, gazelles and cattle.
An ancient painting in Nehen's tomb on plaster depicting boats, staff, goddesses and animals is perhaps the earliest example of wall painting in an Egyptian tomb.
Some interpretations of the themes and plots depicted in the fresco in Nehen are related to the Mesopotamian scene, known as the "Animal Lord," which depicts a supposed figure between two lions.
As for wall design using several rows mud bricks covered with lime mortar, this method is considered characteristic of protodynastic time (Negada III). However, B. Adams believed that such a design of the walls of large elite graves with a transverse protrusion dividing them into two parts, in Negad and Nehen, refers to the late phases of Negada II and Negada III (3300-3150 BC).
In pre-dynastic Egypt, the central figure responsible for the well-being of the social body was the leader - the leader, so he was considered the owner of a special magical power - mana. After death, joining a series of deified ancestors, he became an object of cult, and his grave was revered as a sacred place. The deceased ruler was perceived as a mediator between the worlds of the living and the dead, and his image combined the past and present into a holistic picture of the world. These mythological ideas were reflected in the archaeological and pictorial material of pre-written Egypt.
The combination of the graves of hunters and wild animals around them in Nehen correlates with the pictorial hunting motif characteristic of the Negada culture. The elephant (elephant tusk products) and the wild bull, as well as the lion, according to the beliefs of the Egyptians, had magical power, power, which were transferred to the leader (king). During rituals, the population of the Nile Valley sacrificed bulls, cows, small ungulates, birds and fish, which gave them, primarily large ungulates, the status of sacred animals. Obviously, this phenomenon can be considered as a trace of the oldest totemic ideas.
3400 BC: Peak development of the city with a population of about 7 thousand people
At its peak, from about 3400 BC, Nehen had at least 5,000, possibly as many as 10,000 inhabitants.
HK29a - ceremonial center
On the edge of the lowland desert, at the center of the densest cluster of settlement remains, is the ceremonial/administrative center. Here, a stockade of large logs (HK29b), defined by Thomas Hikade and his team for more than 50 meters, supposedly surrounded an area of more than 1 hectare, which included:
- administrative or palace structures (mysterious stone mound HK34),
- workshops for the manufacture of thin flint tools, semi-precious beads and stone vessels, painstakingly drilled from various exotic and decorative stones, as well as
- an impressive ceremonial structure (HK29a).
It is important to note that earlier reconstructions of this area as a sanctuary, as shown by excavations in 2009, were incorrect. Four huge pillars and eight smaller ones (arranged in 2 rows) in this area do not form the sanctuary as intended, but are now thought to be part of the impressive entrance to the court.
In addition, analysis of the preserved timber of the massive columns shows that these are native acacia, not cedar, as originally assumed, based on their size.
The center in HK29a, used for more than 500 years (Negada IIA - I dynasty), has undergone several reconstructions, and its appearance at each of these stages is still unclear, but there is no doubt about what happened here. This is due to the fact that its keepers were very neat and thrifty, and the garbage pits they dug around the perimeter provided researchers with unique information about real cult practices of the pre-dynastic era.
Thousands (37,500) of livestock and fish bones were found in these pits, as well as from a variety of wildlife. The abundance of bones, the presence of all skeletal elements and traces of sharpening of flint knives suggest that a large number of animals were slaughtered at this site. The high quality of cattle, young sheep and goats, as well as large fish, many of which reached more than 1 meter in length, indicate that feasts accounted for a significant part of the celebrations. However, wild animals including the crocodile, soft-gated turtle, hippopotamus, gazelle, Berber sheep and various predators imply more than just fine dining. Accounting for almost 17% of the total game (compared to 1.5% in the entire settlement), this collection of wild and often dangerous animals had a much more important goal - control of chaos.
One of the fundamental themes of pre-dynastic iconography, the establishment of order over chaos, especially embodied in the diversity of nature, remained the most important role of the Egyptian royal power. The realization of this concept, the struggle against these animals and their subsequent sacrifice with ceremonial knives in this open courtyard must have been a vivid demonstration of the containment of chaos and the victory of the (human) order necessary to maintain balance in space.
Found among the fragments of the temple, a skull with an engraved pattern once again confirms that domination was not limited only to the animal sphere. One side features the characteristic coat of arms of the Bat's cow goddess, whose image also adorns Narmer's tent, and on the back is a stylized woman captivated by an early symbol of royal authority, the bull.
The seasonal availability of desert and aquatic fauna suggests that rituals were associated with the arrival of the Nile spill, a particularly chaotic moment in the space cycle of renewal that required extraordinary forces to overcome. This domination was such an important aspect of the royal ideology that it is possible that it was this time (or its consequence, the jubilee or renewal of the king).
The structure in the HK29a supposedly had a facade about 13 m wide with four wooden columns up to 12 m high. It was believed that the roof had a curved ramp.
The complex included a large courtyard (about 32 by 13 meters), surrounded by a reed fence coated with clay. The paving in the courtyard was made of rammed clay, which, apparently, was transferred several times (which confirms the fact that the structure from time to time required repair).
A large deep pit was dug in the southern part of the yard. Fragments of stone discovered at the bottom of the pit allowed archaeologists to assume that the pit served as the foundation for one high pillar, which was allegedly crowned with a totem in the form of a falcon, symbolizing Neheni (the god Nehen) or Choir.
In the northern part of the courtyard was a deep long trench, which is believed to have served as a support for the wall at the gate.
There was a large sand hill in the courtyard. It was previously assumed that it symbolized the first earthen hill that appeared from the waters of Nun (chaos) in early times, and a mud brick platform, which was added some time after the Negad IIId period.
Barbara Adams suggested that a ruler may have sat here watching the animal sacrifice. She also noted that this is an interesting parallel with the scene depicted on the mace of Narmer, where the king sits on a throne on an elevation and watches wild animals driven into an oval courtyard with a double wall, while a large number of cattle and captive people gather for inspection. In the oval yard on the mace of Narmer, a high pillar is also depicted, the top of which, unfortunately, has not been preserved.
There is also some evidence that the position of the hill in the courtyard of the centre at HK29a in Nehen may have coincided with that of other structures, including the pyramid of Djoser, indicating the use of a general plan for the early Egyptian centre, cenotaph and pyramid enclosure.
Fragments of pre-dynastic ceramics found in the ceremonial and administrative center appear to belong to two different periods. The first period related to Negada IIc (probably around 3400 BC). e.), is distinguished by a high degree of complexity and indicates that at that time Nehen was a very prosperous city.
The second phase refers to the Negad IIId-Negad III period (possibly around 3200 BC). e.), when the finds were noticeably coarser and were limited to oval plates and simple clay jars. This suggests that difficult times have come for the settlement. However, there is also evidence that around this time, buildings made of wood and reeds were replaced by adobe.
A large amount of broken utensils was found in a pit dug in the courtyard. This tableware dates back to the later pre-dynastic period of the center, and since the vessels found were made of strong materials such as porphyry and basalt, they were most likely deliberately broken up before being buried in the bottom of the pit. Many vessels were brought from afar, from Palestine itself. There is also evidence that at this time the walls around the HK29a were dismantled. Adams therefore suggested that the centre had been decommissioned after a major ceremony - perhaps even the coronation or celebration of Heb by Narmer himself.
Cylinder seals: from Mesopotamia, Elam and local
In Egypt, cylindrical seals suddenly appear without any local predecessors around the time of Necad II c-d (3500-3300 BC). Their design is similar to that of seals from Mesopotamia, where they were invented at the beginning of the 4th millennium BC. e., during the Uruk period, as an evolutionary step of various accounting and printing systems that appeared in Mesopotamia at the beginning of the 7th millennium BC. e. The earliest Egyptian cylindrical seals are clearly similar to the earlier and modern Uruk seals up to Nakada II-d (about 3300 BC). Perhaps they were even made by Mesopotamian craftsmen and subsequently sold to the Egyptians, but from about 3300 B.C.E. they begin to differ and become more Egyptian in character.
In the tombs of Upper Egypt dating to the Necad II and III periods, in particular in Nehen, cylindrical seals were discovered, some of which were brought from Mesopotamia, as well as from Elam in ancient Iran, and some were made in Egypt from stylized models of earlier Mesopotamian and Elamite seals.
Cylinder seals from Nehen depict some of the first known scenes in which an ancient Egyptian king strikes captive enemies with a mace. It is a recurring motif in ancient Egyptian art.
Cylindrical seals were made in Egypt until the time of the Middle Kingdom, when they were replaced by scarabeoids.
One of the earliest beer productions in Egypt
Beer, a staple food in ancient Egypt, was a wide range of beverages ranging from simple to sacred. It served as a ration for conscripts and workers, a reward for close associates, and an important offering to the gods.
Outwardly and tasting, it was very different from what is sold in modern bars or on store shelves. Hops, which give modern beer a characteristic bitter taste, were unknown in ancient Egypt. Ancient beer was sweeter, less robust, and generally unfiltered. It resembled liquid porridge more than what most modern consumers consider beer, but some in Egypt might recognize in an ancient drink something essentially identical to a modern folk drink called bouza. The process of making the booze was studied by ethnographers, and the descriptions correspond quite accurately to the sequence of stages proposed by numerous images on ancient tombs and in models of tombs of the Middle Kingdom.
Sprouted grain, or malt, is soaked in water, into which the remains of the previous batch of booze can be added to form yeast. In Egypt, wheat and barley are currently used, as in antiquity, although the ancient wheat variety, emmer, is no longer grown in Egypt today. The infusion is sometimes heated and held at high temperature for several hours, and then left to roam for up to several days. Too high a temperature kills roaming microbes. If the temperature is not high enough, then the yeast and enzymes needed for the process work too slowly. Sometimes fruits and various herbs (the hop function in European beer) are added for fragrance or as preservatives. The addition of fruit increases the sugar content, which in itself accelerates fermentation. Booze-like beer is more nutritious than bread made with the same amount of grain.
Archaeochemical analysis of remains found in ceramic vats in Nehen confirmed one of the earliest physical evidence of beer production in Egypt.
Chemical and microscopic analysis of residues found in the predynastic layers identified barley and wheat fragments, date and grape residues, and fermentation-related compounds such as simple sugars, carboxylic acids, and free amino acids.
According to calibrated radiocarbon dates, the age of residues ranges from 3500 to 3400 years BC. e., which corresponds to the transition from the late pre-dynastic period to the early dynastic. These results show that brewing has been practiced in Egypt since ancient times, and support the hypothesis that beer was both a staple food and a component of ritual and economic activity.
Evidence of the first industrial-scale breweries in Egypt is represented by huge clay vats located in installations that allow them to be heated at the same time. A large brewing area was located near the boundary of cultivated land in HK24 (dating 3510-3426 BC). Using all 16 vats at a time, more than 1,000 litres of beer (or porridge) could be produced. It is the largest known brewery in Nehen to date, but the magnetic footprints of other breweries in this industrial quarter suggest some may be even bigger.
Another brewery complex was located in the wadi in HK11C (dating 3633-3376 years BC).
Equipped with large vats, each containing at least 65 liters, even the smallest of these early brewing complexes, it is estimated that they could produce about 1365 liters of beer per day (or every other day, depending on whether fermentation occurred in the vain).
Based on ethnographic parallels, Geller suggested that beer production took two days: one day it took to bring the liquid to the desired temperature and cool it, and the other for fermentation. Given the fuel costs required to maintain the required temperature, it is possible that the beer was poured from the fermentation tanks to another location, thus freeing the tanks for the next batch until the plant is completely cooled. If this were the case, a large amount of beer could be produced daily.
The daily productivity of the brewery could provide a daily ration for 454 people if each received one jug, or half that number if they received two (standard dynastic ration).
The secret to Nehen's greatness may have been the early development of a redistributive economy that would long sustain Egypt's existence in the future.
Control over this enterprise may have been carried out from the administrative and cult center of HK29a/b (see above). It is mentioned that breweries in the wadi were built to supply the funeral cults of the elite.
Decrease in precipitation
The high concentration of desert plants in the lower sediment layers and the marked change in vegetation to the rarer in the upper layers indicate climate change. This, along with a decrease in desert trees and shrubs in the upper layers, supports general paleoclimatological and archaeological assumptions that rainfall levels decreased after 3500 BC. Intensive tree felling to provide fuel for brewing and pottery may also have played a role in changing ecology. Reduced rainfall eventually caused the low-lying desert in the area of the HK11 site to become uninhabitable.
3600 BC.
Elite graveyard
HK6 is the pre-dynastic and early dynastic cemetery of the Nehen elite (see map at the beginning of the article).
Excavations in HK6 began in 1979 and continue to this day, as well as interpretations of the finds found here. It is one of the most exciting areas of the archaeological complex of Nehen, and the discoveries made here constantly rewrite historical books.
Among the finds:
- the largest tombs of the early Negad II period,
- the earliest above-ground burial structures,
- the first funerary temples,
- the most extensive and diverse animal burials known on any early archaeological site,
- wonderful flint figures,
- early ceramic masks,
- limestone statues and
- the first falcons...
the list can continue.
Below is a brief discussion of what the researchers achieved for December 2012 - a plan for June 2013.
Earliest elevated burial structures and fragments of Egypt's first stone statue
The first excavations (of a scientific nature) at Nehen (HK6) took place from 1979 to 1985 by Michael Hoffman, who demonstrated the special status of this cemetery by discovering massive brick (and one rock-carved) tombs of the Negad III period (tombs 1, 2, 10, 11), the largest tombs in Upper Egypt outside Abju (Abydos).
Despite large-scale looting, they still have valuable and exotic materials, indicating that even after the transfer of power to the north, to Abja, and then to Memphis, Nehen remained a very rich and important place.
Applying archaeological techniques to the cemetery grounds, Hoffman also discovered the remains of the unique wooden architecture that once surrounded these tombs - a type unknown to any other site - that they are now known to have inherited from their ancestors.
He was also the first to discover burials of animals (tombs 7, 12) that he could not date at the time. Tombs from the early Negad II period were also found, many of which contained animals along with human remains (tombs 3, 5, 6, 9).
The large tombs were undoubtedly initially quite rich, but they were no larger than the elite tombs elsewhere in the Negad II period, and contained nothing that set Nehen apart from other settlements and matched its high level of development. That changed afterwards.
From 1997 to 2000, Barbara Adams resumed excavation, working in the central part of the cemetery for evidence to determine whether there was in fact a supposed hiatus in burial activities during the Negad period of the IIC-D (so far, it seems to be). She discovered several more tombs from both the Negad II and III periods, but her most significant discovery was tomb No. 23 (although she was unable to complete the excavation). Measuring 5.5 m in length and 3 m in width, the tomb is the largest known tomb of the Negad IIB period, which, in addition to its size, at the time of discovery was the earliest in Egypt, where there was an elevated burial architecture. It included an enclosing wall of wooden pillars surrounding the colonnade superstructure above the tomb, on the east side of which was a special colonnade zone, which archaeologists call the sacrificial chapel, based on valuable objects found in it. Among these items are animal figurines carved from flint (ibex and Berber sheep head), an ivory cylinder that is possibly the handle of a mace, and, more alarmingly, a human vertebra with notch marks indicating decapitation.
It was in this chapel that fragments of Egypt's first almost life-size stone statue of a man (made of hard limestone) were discovered. The size and shape of the statue is determined by a well-carved nose and two ears, while the rest is represented by more than 600 small fragments, which turned out to be difficult to connect. The vast majority of fragments have treated surfaces, suggesting that the statue was deliberately damaged by sliding impacts and its core was removed for reuse. As a result, it is impossible to determine who this statue depicted, and we can only assume whether it was standing or sitting.
The first burial temples, the first images of a falcon and scorpion. First imported wine in Upper Egypt
Further exploration of the surrounding areas in 2006-2007 revealed another large tomb (tomb 26) with clear signs of a wooden superstructure.
The most intriguing of the finds here is a stylized calcite scorpion punctured in the middle, apparently for attachment. Similar in style and size to the more fragmentary specimens found in tomb 23, these scorpion figures mark the beginning of Nehen's special relationship with the scorpion. This is best illustrated by 27 figures of scorpions from the main vault of the early dynastic temple in the floodplain of the river, as well as an image carved into the top of a scorpion mace (also from the main vault). This attachment shows that the carved figurine does not refer to the actual scorpion, but rather to the image of the scorpion, undoubtedly derived from the type of images found in the tombs of the HK6.
There is no consensus on the significance of the scorpion for 2007: some suggest that it symbolizes royal power, royal ancestors, or is evidence of the local cult of the scorpion deity. In support of the latter claim, though of a much later period, in the New Kingdom local images of Isis were sometimes depicted with scorpions on their heads. Scorpio was considered a kind mother protecting her young, just as Isis defended her son Horus. Thus, the early scorpion goddess of Nehen may well have been an analogue of the vulture goddess and great mother Nehbet of Elkab, located on the other side of the river, who would be depicted protecting the kings of Egypt throughout its long history. The scorpion figurines placed in these early tombs could provide the same protection on the way to rebirth in the afterlife.
Other objects from the tomb indicate that the afterlife was provided with a variety of exotic goods and delicacies. The Palestinian pitcher with a loop-shaped handle found in tomb 26 is the earliest evidence of wine consumption in Upper Egypt, since, apparently, it was wine that was stored in these vessels. This wine variety probably got into the tomb through the northern city of Maadi, crossing the Sinai Strait and then climbing up the river, covering a distance of more than 800 miles. It's a long way to go for a good drink.
Even more remarkable were the structures, under which there were no tombs, which were multi-column, or colonnade, halls.
These colonnade halls not only represent the first examples of the architectural style (hypostyle hall), previously assumed only for the pre-dynastic period, but also provide convincing evidence of the existence of developed funeral temples and rituals from very early times. These wooden structures appear to have existed for generations as at least three phases of construction were discovered, with earlier structures being replaced by even more majestic structures over time.
Radiocarbon dating of the bark of one of the wooden columns of the hall of the later stage (construction E8) 3790-3640 BC (4930 ±50 years BC) proves their antiquity. Their original appearance is more difficult to identify, but fragments of red and green pigment plaster, as well as some with figured patterns, indicate that these structures were colorful and impressive.
Of the eight known structures, structure No. 7 is best preserved; its length was 15 meters, its width was 10.5 meters, and inside there were originally 24 wooden columns. Despite significant destruction, various objects were found in the pits from the pillars, apparently remaining as foundation sediments. Among them are shells from the Red Sea, ivory objects, cow's horn and a bundle of tissue with malachite.
Other items were found in the corners. In the northeast, there were clusters of ostrich egg shells, indicating the initial presence of at least six rare and valuable whole eggs, some of which were decorated with a hunting scene.
Objects of various types were found in the southeast corner, including a unique ivory rod with a carved image of a procession of hippos along the top, a tiny steatite hippo figure and a falcon figure expertly carved from fragile malachite.
This is the earliest image of a falcon in Egypt.
Falcons became common only shortly before the First Dynasty, especially as symbols of royal names. It is not known whether this falcon already then had royal connotations, but given the elitist context and the close connection of the local falcon god Horus with the early royal power, this seems very likely.
In the corners, archaeologists also collected a large number of graceful hollow-based arrowheads, some of which were quite large, anticipating the gigantic dimensions of votive clubs and palettes from the Main Deposit. The skill shown in their manufacture leaves no doubt that the same craftsmen created a flint mountain goat, also found in structure 07. Other flint animal figures have been found in the corners of other structures, always in combination with arrowheads and other hunting equipment, and indicate ritual actions symbolizing control. These flint figurines from the HK6 cemetery, belonging to a relatively rare class of artifacts (only about 65 copies were known in 2012), represent the largest single collection of flint animal figurines with a known origin from all over Egypt.
This colonnade complex, located in the center of the cemetery, was undoubtedly used for funeral rites over the people buried here and allows you to see the complex burial landscape on a scale previously unexpected for this time.
However, their discovery created a problem as the configuration of the columns around tomb 23 suspiciously resembled a reused or borrowed colonnade hall. In addition, when archaeologists realized that several pillars of colonnade hall E8 had been removed for the burial of an African elephant found in tomb 24 and believed to be part of the encirclement of tomb 23, a "borrowing" scenario became even more likely.
Thus, it became extremely important to determine whether other elite tombs of the period possessed architectural features, and in the hope of finding out, archaeologists returned to the area first explored by Barbara Adams in 1999 to once again look at Tomb No. 16, another large elite tomb of the early pre-dynastic Negada IC-IIA period, around which the remains of wooden pillars were discovered.
Although a brick tomb of the Negad IIIA2 period was later inserted into Tomb No. 16, apparently an act of respectful reconstruction rather than usurpation, it was still possible to estimate the dimensions of the original tomb. Approximately 4.3 x 2.6 m and about 1.45 m deep, it is one of the largest known tombs of the Negad period IC-IIA.
Despite being looted and reused, it was a very rich tomb containing a huge amount of pottery. More than 115 vessels were found in it, including one engraved with the earliest known image of the bat, suggesting its close association with power from the start.
Research carried out in 2009-2011 revealed a number of wooden pillars indicating the presence of a massive superstructure above the tomb, and six openings from the pillars along the north side denoted a small sacrificial chapel. And, like tomb No. 23, it was surrounded by a wooden fence, but in the case of tomb No. 16 it connected to a wider complex of fences containing a number of smaller tombs. Together, these elements form a complex that archaeologists have tentatively reconstructed as an imitation of the owners' earthly dwelling, where family members took their place after death in the same way they did during their lifetime. Although all the auxiliary tombs were heavily looted, enough of their contents survive to suggest that there was nothing arbitrary about their layout and the composition of the inhabitants: the inner row adjacent to tomb No. 16 was intended for human burials, while the graves of animals and possibly their caretakers form an outer perimeter indicating the presence of a vast menagerie of both domestic and wild animals.
Egypt's first funeral masks
Two of the best-preserved ceramic masks known exclusively from this cemetery probably also come from Tomb 16. Curved to be worn over a human head and attached with a thread passed through the holes behind the ears, they are Egypt's earliest funerary masks.
The most impressive and important item found in tomb 72 in 2014 (found objects allow dating it to the Negada period IIA-B, approximately 3700-3600 BC) was an almost whole figurine of a standing bearded man, carved from a hippo tusk, 32 cm high. Only narrow arms are missing, which were originally carved separately from the sides of the torso, and the hands rested on the lower legs. The original polished tusk surface was destroyed by termites, but features including a turquoise nose, very large ears, curved eyebrows, protruding lips and a short pointed beard are still visible. These features strongly resemble ceramic masks known only from the HK6 cemetery.
This similarity in facial features suggests that both the statue and mask depict the same being, but whether it is a predynastic ruler, god or spirit has yet to be determined.
This figurine is unique in both size and quality among excavated and dated materials of the pre-dynastic period. Only figurines from the tusk from the Main Storage in Nehen are comparable to it. This find suggests that the tradition of fine ivory carving at the site dates back to at least the early Negad II period.
The orientation of tomb 72 suggests that it was the main tomb of the tomb complex on the east side of the cemetery, in which several young men, leopard, wild cattle, baboons, sheep with modified horns, goats, dogs and possibly an ostrich were also buried. Thus, the owner of tomb 72 could be one of the pre-dynastic kings of ancient Nehen.
Near the center of the tomb was a ridge with a hippopotamus figure carved on it. The spot on the back of the hippo figure appears to have been a consequence of intentional firing, possibly to protect against the danger the hippo may have posed. This ridge was found just above the remains of the tomb owner's pelvis.
Dwarfs are buried with honor as faithful servants
Exquisite artifacts in all human tombs indicate belonging to their persons of high status, presumably family members and courtiers, among whom, apparently, a male dwarf with achondroplasia was especially privileged, buried in the additional tomb No. 47, whose height was just under 120 cm.
Dwarfs were highly valued at the court of the kings of the First Dynasty, where they were revered, burying them among those close to the royal tombs and perpetuating their memory with high-quality steles, which testifies to their value as personal servants. This tradition was preserved in the Old Kingdom. There is some evidence that the dwarf from tomb No. 47 was already a highly valued companion in the pre-dynastic period. First of all, this is the location of his grave, which is located under the floor of the colonnade of the chapel. Burial here was apparently an incredible privilege, linking him closely with the owner of Tomb No. 16 after death, as he undoubtedly was during his lifetime.
An additional confirmation can be his possible portrait made of flint. Although it was found on the surface to the northwest, this notable artifact may well depict a dwarf with curved legs and short arms.
But perhaps the best indicator of the dwarf's special status is its age. At the age of approximately 40, he is the oldest person in the burial complex.
Graves of victims - people and animals - around the grave of the master
Of the 39 people found in the 14 tombs directly adjacent to Tomb No. 16, there is no one under the age of 8 and none over the age of 35; more than two-thirds of them were teenagers under 15 and young women. The sample is still limited, but this is far from normal mortality and strongly suggests that only a few, if any, died of natural causes. Perhaps they were specially chosen to accompany their master after his death.
If this is true for humans, then it is certainly true for most animals as well. Almost identical radiocarbon dates of two of these animals indicate that both died simultaneously: sometime between 3660 and 3640 BC. These animals buried whole include an African elephant, a bison (wild goby), a pregnant antelope hartebeist, a young hippo, a crocodile, two baboons, 15 livestock, two large goats and 28 dogs - a total of 52 animals.
The most valuable, apparently, are the remains of a ten-year-old male African elephant (tomb 33) and bison (tomb 19), which took extraordinary efforts to capture, since, probably, such animals did not live in these places at that time. Both were found alone by archaeologists in large fenced tombs wrapped in vast amounts of linen and mats. Both received a bountiful last meal as most of the food was still inside them. A detailed analysis of the plant composition of the elephant's last meal shows that it fed on river plants, acacia branches and canopy, both chaff and grain, which indicates its good condition.
Although neither the elephant nor the bison have clear signs of long-term captivity, the fact that the animals were under human control for some time is evidenced by tooth deformity in the hartebeasts antelope, similar to that observed in wild animals kept in zoos. In addition, she was three months pregnant, and the articulating bones of the legs of the fetus were found in their places in the tissues of the uterus. Thus, it is likely that breeding herds of this increasingly rare and now extinct breed were supported at the zoo.
Similarly, breeding groups contained baboons that are not native to the Nile Valley. Almost all of them have healed forearm fractures, indicating that they were likely subject to disciplinary abuse but were then treated for at least 4-6 weeks, corresponding to the time of bone fusion; after that, it is impossible to tell how long they have lived.
A four-month-old hippo was found near the house. Although the hippo's tomb was severely disturbed, almost the entire skeleton was recovered. A healed fracture of the lower back leg has been found among the bones, indicating that this young hippo was likely tied to a tree and held in captivity for weeks before his death, breaking his leg in an attempt to free himself. Also, a crocodile (tomb 45) was extracted from the river by the ancient Egyptians, the size of the head of which indicates that initially its length was about 2 meters.
Dogs are by far the most represented species and have been found buried in seven different graves. Most of them were rather large, thoroughbred animals, but gentile breeds were also found. Scattered throughout the complex, they probably served as hunters, herders or controlled other animals, especially wild animals, which can be seen as a manifestation of the power of their owner. But the dogs probably also grazed pets, which appears to be an expression of his ostentatious luxury and excess.
But why bury all these animals? That's not an easy question to answer. In different complexes, different levels of effort involved in burying animals suggest that their significance need not be the same. Overall, it seems that the large variety of taxa buried around the perimeter of the tomb complex No. 16 symbolically provided protection against the natural chaos they represented.
The burial of pets could also guarantee an eternal supply of food and communication, as well as be an ostentatious demonstration of wealth. But burying large wildlife was probably primarily a show of power. Owning these exotic animals would be a strong visual statement about the power and wealth of their owner. The creation and maintenance of the royal menageries is known to have been a means of legitimizing the pharaohs of the New Kingdom, and may also have served this purpose in such an early period.
The power shown here, however, was not simply the right to control or kill these beings, but the right to become them by appropriating their formidable natural qualities to themselves. Thus, these tombs reflect the physical reality behind the iconography of animal-image-based power that dominated the early periods of Egyptian history, as seen, for example, in the Narmer pallet and other documents where royal power manifests itself in various animalistic guises.
Evidence from Nehen now suggests that this royal symbolism was not metaphorical, but goes back to real physical dominance over some of their world's most powerful beings.
Cemetery of ordinary residents
Egypt's first mummies
As was usually the case in the pre-dynastic cemeteries of Upper Egypt, the bodies of ordinary residents were laid on a mat in a bent position on their left side, facing west. Covered in linen shroud, the corpses were often protected with additional mats, and up to 10 different mats were found in some graves in the HK43, covered over the body.
The first body wrapped or covered with soft material was found intact in burial No. 71 in 1997 (of course, on the last day!). This young woman (she had short hair, which initially caused confusion that it was a man) was covered in a mat and buried with eight pots, one of which was still with the lid closed. In one of them, located behind her head under the mat, there were round loaves of bread, which are perfectly preserved due to the fact that they contain very few real grains, consisting mainly of crumb - this indicates that the practice of bringing false offerings to the dead has a very long history.
Under the mat, her body was covered with a linen shroud, but in addition, her neck and arms were wrapped in flax. This is seen around the jaw and arms, where lumps of tissue were used to soften parts of the body. A study of this resin-soaked flax showed that the winding was done thoroughly. Only the thinnest flax was attached to the skin, while the outer windings became increasingly coarse.
Further examination of her remains revealed, apparently, one of her internal organs, also wrapped in resin-soaked linen cloth, after which it was returned to the thoracic cavity, from where it was extracted. This suggests that evisceration was already practiced at this time, possibly with the aim of slowing down rot, but further research is needed to confirm this version.
Burial No. 16 was also a soft-pad burial, albeit heavily looted. It belonged to an elderly woman (about 30 years old or older) whose long hair is extremely well preserved under 10 cm linen pads. Linen pads have been found around the jaw as well as around the arms and forearms. The preservation was so good that even her nails were still in place inside the wrapper. Unlike other burials, it also seems that the whole head was covered in soft pads, judging by the large lumps of pads stuck to her hair.
When that lining was removed, we found it wasn't just about wrapping. First, an examination of her hair showed that some of them were colored with henna (Lawsonia inermis). But there was more to it. To give volume to the greying and thinning hair, strands of her own hair were neatly woven in, laid in a rather complex hairstyle with a large volume in the center. It is not known whether this was done during her lifetime or posthumously, but it is obvious that she could not do it herself.
This burial provides not only the earliest documented evidence of the use of hair dyes in Egypt, but also the earliest evidence of the use of artificial hair in Egypt, if not throughout the ancient world, preceding subsequent examples by at least 300 years. The result of many hours of work, this additional concern for her appearance for the afterlife suggests that during her lifetime she was highly respected. Perhaps the tight-fitting garment and winding of her body was another expression of that attitude.
In another burial, a wig made of animal skin was found tied to the remaining natural hair of a man with rare hair and a very neatly trimmed beard.
Burial number 85 belonged to a young woman (16-20 years old), whom we nicknamed Paddy. It was found intact, still completely covered by a double layer of mat. Under the mat, her arms and forearms were overlaid with thick bundles of linen and then wrapped. Flax tufts were also used to upholstery the area around the base of the skull, neck and jaw. However, most of the face, eyes, nose and mouth were not covered. Her burial did not have burial supplies in the usual sense. Only a pair of rounded shards and flint flint were found in the bend of her knees.
Careful removal of the top layer of tangled hair and linen pads around the head preserved all of her hair, revealing a shoulder-length hairstyle with natural waves reaching about 22 cm from the top of the head, with a left side parting and asymmetric fringe of S-shaped curls fringing the forehead. In addition to the excellent preservation of hair on the head, the right eyebrow has also been preserved.
A bone study showed that this young woman was not only beautiful. Marks of cuts were found on her throat, indicating that her throat was slit (but not beheaded), after which the neck area was covered with linen pads. Explanations for this mode of conversion are still a mystery. No traces of cuts were found on the other wrapped bodies.
It appears that the lining served to keep the head in place or to magically protect the head and hands from subsequent damage. Fixed body parts, especially the arms and jaw, are associated with nutrition or the ability to eat, so the lining could be an attempt to preserve forever what is necessary to maintain life in the afterlife. It remains unclear whether such an appeal directly led to the appearance of later mummies, but it seems that its main purpose was not to artificially preserve the appearance of the body, but rather its mobility. However, these findings force a review of the possible causes of artificial mummification.
Burial supplies
Only 9% of all burials in the cemetery have HK43 been preserved intact. Based on the ceramics found in some graves, it can be assumed that the looting took place in ancient, Roman and medieval times (around the 11th century AD).
Of the 452 burials in the cemetery, HK43 burial supplies can be attributed to less than half (about 210 graves). These funerary supplies include mostly pottery, usually one to three pots, a limited variety of shapes - small black-capped jugs, red polished bowls, bottles, both large and small, and kitchen pots. The largest number of vessels discovered are 10 in burial 450 and 8 in burial 71, both whole tombs of women in which no other objects were found.
Cosmetic grauwacca palettes were found in only five graves, evidence of copper objects in four (apparently stored in bags worn mainly by men on the thigh), beads at the location in only two (both children).
The food was a fairly common offering to the deceased and included round loaves of bread, although one was so full of crumbs that it was impossible to eat during life. Fruits such as melon, nebok (a wild apple-like fruit of "Z. izyphus spina-christi") and balanos, or desert date, were often given goodbye. An elderly woman was found to have a whole head of garlic wrapped in a cloth that retained its aroma after 5500 years.
Burial No. 412, owned by a middle-aged man, was looted, but preserved wrapped in the skin of an animal and hidden under preserved wool, a flint knife with a tail in the form of a fish tail, still attached to the reed handle. In addition to the wrapper, the blade also had a leather case, which suggests that these knives were not only highly regarded weapons, but were still considered dangerous.
Dozens decapitated, with throat slit, scalps removed
It is more difficult to explain the traces of cuts found on the cervical vertebrae of 21 people, indicating a throat cut, and in some cases a complete decapitation. Such examples included men and women between the ages of 16 and 65, five of whom (all young men) were also scalped, their skulls covered with up to 197 shallow cuts. Operations focused only on the skull arch, while no traces of cuts were found on the facial and postcranial remains. This strongly suggests that the purpose of the act was simply to remove the scalp, but for unknown reasons.
The same can be said for the throat slit. The standard arrangement of lacerations on the throat - always in front, high on the neck, most often on the second and third cervical vertebrae - and the lack of protective damage indicate that these marks are not the result of a crime or war. In few surviving or relatively extant burials with severed heads, skulls have been found in place, as in burials 85 and 123, or at least in the correct location, as in burials 271 and 438, where traces of severing indicate complete decapitation before the head has been returned to place.
The burials of the victims are scattered throughout the cemetery, and the graves are apparently no different from others, not surpassing them in wealth and poverty.
Explanations for such conversion range from the ritual practice of dismemberment, possibly related to the predecessor of the myth of Osiris, in which the god was dismembered by his brother Seth, reassembled by his wife Isis, and then wrapped and mummified by Anubis before entering the afterlife as king of the underworld.
Later, when the texts appeared, it became known that after death, all Egyptians became Osiris, and the mummification of the body was seen as a reproduction of the events of Osiris's death. On the other hand, if that were the case, more slit marks would be expected. Since only less than 5% of the bodies show signs of such treatment, other proposed explanations include the death penalty for crimes, in which the body of the offender was then transferred to the family for burial. At least given that the graves do not show much in disposition or content, it seems that human sacrifice for ritual purposes can be excluded, at least here. A completely different situation may develop in an elite cemetery (HK6 area), where traces of cuts were found on one of the human vertebrae.
Pottery workshops
On the outskirts of the city center was a semi-underground dwelling of a potter who accidentally burned his house along with a stove (HK29, see the map at the beginning of the article), thereby ensuring its excellent preservation up to charred roof beams and wall beams, discovered in 1978 in the same state as they fell 5500 years ago.
A change in wind direction caused flames from his pottery kiln, located just 5 metres from the house, to spread to him and burn him to the ground. The fire painted and hardened the ground and clay bricks that made up the lower part of the house and turned the pillars and mats of its walls into coal and ash, which were discovered by Michael Hoffman and his team. It is one of the oldest surviving houses in Egypt.
The lower part of the house, measuring 4 x 3.5 m, was dug to a depth of about 50 cm. Clay mortar and hand-sculpted bricks supported 8 wooden pillars that held the roof and walls of plastered clay reed. Judging by the preserved height of the charred pillars, the height of the structure was about 1.45 m.
The average radiocarbon dating (C14) date for this settlement is 3590 ±117 BC, which places it in the early and middle period of Negad II. However, numerous fragments of ceramics with white cruciform lines (C-ceramics), as well as fragments of marl ceramics indicate a long history of the area.
Apparently, pottery received significant development in the pre-dynastic period. Stratified deposits in the house HK11 show a fairly rapid change in the types of utensils: from homemade cooking pots used earlier, to relatively low-quality products (with the addition of straw), which were mass-produced during the heyday of the city by potters in HK29 and other places.
A more likely method of firing utilitarian ceramics with the addition of straw was pit kilns, in which pots were placed in several layers, and then covered with clay and shards to preserve heat.
This method has been shown to be surprisingly effective, and a similar method may also have been used by a potter from Burnt House (HK29).
Others specialized in the manufacture of thin polished red-black vessels with red caps, characteristic of the Negad I and early Negad II phase of the pre-dynastic period, and some of the best examples of ceramics ever created in Egypt.
Because the clay was very thin and dense, slow pot drying required careful regulation to prevent deformation or cracking. After drying, the vessel was coated with a layer of red ochre (iron oxide) and polished with a smooth pebble to give it a thin shine. Only then could it be placed in the oven. After firing, the vessel was placed by the rim down into hot smoldering ash to produce a blackened rim.
The places of production of this type of ceramics were hidden in the rocks bordering the large wadi (HK59, etc.), possibly to keep secret the special knowledge necessary for its manufacture. Heaps of cracked, overheated, and melted pots that identify these production sites indicate that great skill was required to form, dry, and burn these elegant thin-walled vessels, and that mastering it was not easy.
3700 L BC: The oldest burial of domestic cats in Egypt
Among the oldest finds of domestic cats is the cat family (cat, cat and four kittens) 5800-5600 years old from [2] and a cat buried in Cyprus near a human grave about 9,500 years [3] There were no wild cats in Cyprus, which means that someone brought this cat or its ancestors there on purpose.
3750 BC: Consumption of spelt, barley, melon, fish. Flax cultivation. Burials under the floor of the house
Ceramic material from garbage heap A at site HK11 indicates Negada dating IC-IIA (c. 3800-3700 BC) for most of the accumulation, and the nature of the ceramics and sediments in general suggests that they largely predate intensive industrial brewing and pottery activities.
Analysis of the plant composition by Dr Ahmed Fahmi (Helvan University) revealed grains and chaff, the main crop grown for human consumption, as well as barley residues.
Polba and barley were eaten by humans, and their byproducts (chaff and straw) were used to feed livestock.
Flax grown for linen production has also been identified, and its seeds may also have been used as animal feed. Also present were the seeds of cultivated melons and edible wild fruits (Balanites aegyptiaca, Citrullus colocynthis and Zizyphus spina-christi), which added sugars and carbohydrates to the diet; as well as the seeds, fruits and leaves of field weeds and desert plants.
Evidence suggests that the stalks of the grain were cut about 40 cm above the soil surface. The stubble was then left in the soil as an organic fertilizer. It is a traditional method of harvesting cereals in ancient Egypt, and is depicted in many tomb reliefs.
The fauna (about 4,000 elements) was explored by Wim van Neer and Virle Linsele. This material is well preserved, with horns, hooves and skin present in some cases. Traditional domestic species prevail (cattle, sheep/goats and - to a lesser extent - pigs).
Species that became prey of hunters were infrequent, but included gazelle (Gazella dorcas), hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), fox (Vulpes rueppelli) and crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). Among fish, Nile perch (Lates niloticus) and catfish (Synodontis) are the most common. Burnt bones were found in large numbers.
In one of the pits, bones of a newborn person were also found, indicating a burial under the floor of the house.
4500 BC: First settlement
The first settlement in Nehen refers to either the pre-dynastic Amratic culture (c. 4400 BC) or the late Badarian culture (c. 5000 BC).
Notes
- ↑ R Van Neer W Linseele V 2011 The elite Predynastic cemetery at Hierakonpolis 2009 update In Egypt at its Origins 3 Friedman R Fiske P Eds Pen-Paper 157 email Origins? The elite Predynastic cemetery at Hierakonpolis: 2009-2010 update. In : Egypt at its Origins, 3, (Friedman, R., Fiske, P. (Eds.)). (pp. 157-191). Leuven: Peeters
- ↑ NehenW. Van Neer et al., 2014. More evidence for cat taming at the Predynastic elite cemetery of Hierakonpolis (Upper Egypt)
- ↑ agoJ.-D. Vigne et al., 2004. Early Taming of the Cat in Cyprus.
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