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2023/04/04 16:00:00

Moon

Exploration and exploration of the moon is of great interest to scientists and opens up new prospects for space exploration. It is quite possible to build a permanent base on the moon: there is water (in the form of ice in craters) and minerals - for example, iron and titanium. Vacuum should allow ultrapure alloys to be produced.

Content

Moons of the Solar System

Theories of the origin of the moon

From the collision of Earth and Teya

One theory of the Moon's origin suggests it was the result of a catastrophic collision between the young Earth and Theia. A protoplanet the size of Mars crashed into Earth at an angle, and most of the matter of the object that hit, as well as part of the matter of the Earth's mantle, were thrown into Earth orbit. From these "wreckage" the Moon formed and began to orbit our planet.

Such a hypothesis explains well why extremely few volatile substances are observed on the Moon, unlike its neighbor, Earth. According to the researchers, they could simply evaporate due to extremely high temperatures and pressure. However, it is difficult to verify this assumption, since scientists in the laboratory cannot reproduce the temperature or even the distant scale of such a process. However, events took place on Earth that can serve as a model for planetary research: one of them is the Trinities nuclear bomb test conducted in 1945 in the state of New Mexico, USA.

Volatile elements and water are almost absent on the surface of the moon, as they evaporated in the process of a giant collision. This conclusion was reached in 2017 by American and French scientists, analyzing rocks from the area where the world's first nuclear bomb was tested. The researchers' work was published in the journal Science Advances[1].

During the explosion, which was equivalent to approximately 21 kilotons of TNT, the sand on the nearby surface melted, becoming a thin layer of glass, or trinitite. He was exposed to temperatures over 8 thousand degrees Celsius and a pressure of about 80 thousand atmospheres. According to scientists, these conditions are close to those that arose during the formation of the moon.

The authors of the work studied the distribution of one volatile element, zinc, as well as its isotopes in trinitite samples. The researchers noticed that the closer trinitite was to the epicenter of the explosion, the less zinc and its light isotopes were contained in it. This is because they evaporated in the process. At the same time, heavier zinc isotopes (66Zn) showed an inverse relationship - their concentration increased as they approached the point where the tests took place.

Since studies of samples of lunar rocks show that the soil of the Moon also contains few volatile elements and compounds, including light isotopes of zinc, the authors of the work believe that their study testifies either in favor of a large collision in antiquity, or in favor of the existence of the magma ocean that arose after it. As a result of these events, volatile elements and compounds could simply evaporate.

In 2020, scientists at Durham University in the UK found out how the collision of the Earth with a small planet 4.5 billion years ago led to the appearance of the moon. The process of forming an Earth satellite was modeled using high-performance computing on a DiRAC supercomputer. The disclosure of the mystery of the appearance of the moon is reported in an article published in the magazine Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society[2].

Researchers followed the fate of the substance ejected into space within four days of the Mars-sized collision between Earth and Teya. In this case, various scenarios were taken into account depending on the speed of rotation of the minor planet around its axis. It turned out that if Teya did not rotate, then the collision leads to the release of a substance that makes up 80 percent of the mass of the moon. This substance, under the action of its own gravity, forms a celestial body. At a small rotational speed, a moon-like object is also formed.

The resulting block, which begins to fly in orbit around the Earth, grows after the collision, "feeding" on material from the disk of debris surrounding the planet. It has an iron core and an outer shell formed by the matter of Earth and Theia.

The appearance of the moon 4.425 billion years ago

Celestial bodies in the solar system for the first 4.5 billion years moved chaotically and collided with each other. Most scientists adhere to the version that the Moon was created due to the global collision of the Earth and the Teya protoplanet, which is close in size to Mars. Due to the collision, the upper shells of the Earth were released into near-Earth orbit, from which a new celestial body was formed.

But the exact date of this event is not easy to establish - none of the lunar stones brought to Earth by astronauts directly "reports" the age of this celestial body.

In 2020, the age of the moon was recalculated using a mathematical model. The new results differ significantly from previous data, which were just a hypothesis. The moon was 85 million years younger than previously thought.

German geophysicists applied a new approach to determine the exact time of the formation of the moon. Using mathematical modeling, it turned out that the Moon was created 4.425 billion years ago. Prior to this, it was assumed that the moon is 4.51 billion years old. Thus, it is 85 million years younger than previously thought. The authors of the study spoke about the results of their calculations in Science Advances.

The results of the latest study, when scientists were able to simulate what happened, show that a collision with a protoplanet happened 140 million years after the birth of the solar system. Simple calculations say that this happened 4.425 billion years ago - then the moon appeared.

Most models of Moon formation suggest that there was an ocean of magma on the early Moon, which initially solidified through effective radiation cooling in space of the hot liquid surface of the celestial body. Because of this, a cold thin crust formed, under which the moon continued to remain in a molten state. Previous studies were not able to calculate how long the igneous ocean froze, so it was not possible to calculate the time of the formation of the moon. The authors of the new study decided to calculate this using a computer mathematical model, which for the first time takes into account all the processes that occur during the solidification of magma. The results showed that the igneous lunar ocean had fully evolved into a mantle rock in nearly 200 Ma, much longer than the 35 Ma that previous research had suggested.

Next, scientists calculated how the composition of silicate minerals that formed during the crystallization of magma changed over time. So they built a connection between how rocks formed, with different stages of magma formation. As a result, it was possible to trace the evolution of the magma ocean on the moon to its starting point - that is, the exact time when the moon was born.

Importantly, the age of the moon, determined in a new way, coincided with the previously obtained uranium-lead method data on the time of completion of the formation of the Earth.

Processes on the moon

Earth's oxygen found on moon

As it became known in 2017, despite the fact that astronomers have long known about the presence of oxygen on the moon, only recently the Japanese spacecraft determined the presence of this element, and even with a very interesting nature - terrestrial. The discovery was made by the SELENE probe (Kaguya), and the head of the team of planetary scientists Kentaro Tedara from Osaka University reported on it on the pages of the journal Nature Astronomy[3].

The team believes that this find can not only shed light on some details of the formation of our planet several billion years ago, including the state of the then atmosphere, but also explain how oxygen from the Earth got to the moon.

About five days of each month, the Moon is protected from the solar wind by our planet's magnetosphere - an area of space in the form of a bubble where the Earth's magnetic field has significant influence. Scientists believe that oxygen ions could have moved from our planet to the moon precisely in one of such periods and ultimately found their refuge in the upper layer of the satellite's soil and its rock.

The geological activity taking place on Earth eventually erased all evidence of our planet's ancient atmosphere. However, the oxygen ions present on the moon still remain intact for several billion years. Moreover, collecting samples of this oxygen can help scientists understand how the Earth's atmosphere changed over time and what effect these changes may have had on the evolution of different life forms.

In addition to helping to understand the past of our planet, such research both indirectly and directly helps in fulfilling our desires to colonize space. After all, we need oxygen to breathe, and the moon appears to be one of the first likely points for colonization in humanity's immediate plans.

Japan wants to send an astronaut to the moon by 2030. The head of the company Amazon Blue Origin Jeff Bezos believes that the right time has come for a permanent colony on the satellite. The United Arab Emirates also expresses its desire to establish a colony on the moon.

Solar wind transports rust from Earth to the moon

Astronomers are worried in 2020 that the moon is getting covered in rust. Information collected by the Chandrayan-1 orbital lunar satellite indicates that hematite-like material is present on the surface of the Earth's satellite. This is surprising, given that there is no oxygen and water with which iron oxide could be formed.

Back in 2008, NASA, using the Moon Mineralogy Mapper spectrometer installed on the Chandrayaan-1 artificial lunar satellite, collected data on the surface of the moon.

Then a lot of information was mapped, subsequently studied by a team of scientists from the Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Science (part of the University of Hawaii). The researchers published recent findings in Science Advances[4]

In particular, spectral analysis data indicate that the composition of the moon's poles differs from the composition of its other surfaces. The Moon's poles contain hematite (Fe2O3), a very common mineral on Earth and Mars. Simply put, this is rust formed by the oxidation of iron, that is, by the contact of iron with oxygen and water.

Map of the distribution of hematite on the Moon. Hematite is indicated in red. On the left is the north pole, on the right is the south pole. Image: Shuai Li, Paul G. Lucey et al./Science Advances, 2020

For example, Mars is just known for its rust, and it is not just called the Red Planet - the iron contained in the surface of Mars reacted with oxygen and water in the past and gave such a hue. The moon is the most inappropriate place for the formation of hematitis, and it's not just about hydrogen on its surface. The chemical reaction requires oxygen or water, which are not found on the moon (except for water ice, traces of which were found by the spectrometer at the same time as hematite).

The researchers were also puzzled by the question of how iron oxide could have formed in the presence of a large amount of hydrogen. Hydrogen brings solar wind to the moon - a stream of charged particles emanating from the sun. Earth is protected from hydrogen by its magnetosphere. Hydrogen is a reducing agent, that is, it adds electrons to the materials with which it interacts, and usually makes rust difficult. And to form rust, again, an oxidizing agent is required - oxygen.

The analysis also revealed that hematite is concentrated in the region of high latitudes - mainly in the eastern and equatorial parts of the moon, and it is larger on the near side, which is turned towards Earth. Based on this, scientists have suggested that hematite formation is related to Earth.

Based on the findings of other lunar missions, scientists concluded that the moon supplies oxygen to the Earth. It is carried from the upper layers of its atmosphere by the solar wind. And at the time when the Moon is located in the lower part of the Earth's magnetosphere, the magnetic field does not allow hydrogen to pass, which interferes with oxidation.

Thus, it is oxygen from Earth that acts as the main oxidizer of iron in the formation of hematite on the Moon. And this process has been going on for several billion years. In addition, the areas with hematite coincide with the places where the spectrometer detected water ice, that is, water could also act as an oxidizing agent in the past.

The blue areas in this image, obtained with the Moon Mineralogy Mapper, show the location of water ice at the moon's poles. Image: ISRO/NASA/JPL-Caltech/Brown University/USGS

But it is curious that on the far side of the Moon, where oxygen from the Earth could not get, hematite is also present, albeit in smaller quantities. The question remains open, but researchers have suggested that small amounts of water that were found in the moon's high latitudes may have been involved in hematite formation.

In 2020, scientists expect that they will be able to obtain samples of lunar hematite within the framework of the NASA Artemis program for further research in order to find confirmation of their theory.

Lunar Exploration

Exploration and exploration of the moon is of great interest to scientists and opens up new prospects for space exploration. It is quite possible to build a permanent base on the moon: there is water (in the form of ice in craters) and minerals - for example, iron and titanium. Vacuum should allow ultrapure alloys to be produced.

The delivery of minerals to Earth extracted from natural space objects is not economically feasible, therefore, the processing of minerals directly at the mining station in space is of interest. In 5-15 years, the Moon, the surface layer of which - regolith - consists of particles of destroyed rocks, can become an object for mining and processing minerals outside the Earth.

At the same time, there is no point in repeating flights to the moon for 2-3 days: it is too expensive and ineffective. Building a lunar base will cost even more and require the space industry new, more powerful rockets and huge costs, for which the US budget is now unlikely to be ready. For example, during the Apollo program, NASA received funding in the amount of 5% of the state budget, and now - about one percent[5]

Interests of countries (other than minerals):

  • space solar power. China has unveiled ambitious plans and seems to have set about implementing them. Let's imagine giant batteries hanging face to the Sun around the clock, directing gigawatt microwave packets down, to energy receivers on Earth.
  • satellite internet. Imagine a farmer in Bolivia facing a choice of paying an American company for him or accepting him "as a gift from the Chinese people." It is clear what he will choose.

Colonists on the Moon and Mars were offered to live in lava tubes

Under the surface of the Moon and Mars you can find extensive tunnels - lava tubes[6]left behind by past volcanic activity. Once molten matter, unevenly cooling, formed these cavities, which have been preserved on bodies that have long been almost devoid of geological activity for millions, or even billions of years. These shelters could be an ideal location for establishing permanent colonies and the future exploration of Mars and the Moon. This proposal was voiced by[7] geologist from the University of Padua Riccardo Pozzobon and his colleagues from the Italian Institute of Speleology[8].

ESA Astronauts training in terrestrial lava tubes in Lanzarote during the PANGEA 2016 course. Credit: ESA/L. Ricci

According to scientists, on Earth such lava tubes reach a diameter of only about 30 m, while on Mars, for example, they can have 250 m, and on the Moon they can reach 1 km, stretching for hundreds of kilometers. Immersed in the ground, they will provide reliable natural protection from the dangerous effects of radiation, and from impacts of micrometeorites - both people and any other life. On the Moon and Mars, devoid of their own atmosphere and global magnetic field, radiation and meteorites pose a much greater danger than on Earth.

"Potentially, they are also extensive enough to accommodate significant settlements," added Ricardo Pozzobon, speaking at the European Congress on Planetary Science (EPSC) held in Latvia. "Almost the entire historical center of Riga would fit into the lunar lava tube." Moreover, European astronauts are already working out the prospect of settling in such a tunnel - so far on Earth. The PANGAEA project works on various aspects of such subsurface settlement, ranging from geology to field work that takes place in lava caves in the volcanic Canary Islands in the Atlantic.

Minerals of the Moon

Science knows that the moon has a mass of various fossil useful types, in particular, those metals that are incredibly minerals for industry. Among those are the following:

  • Aluminium;
  • Titan;
  • Hardware.

In addition, in the upper part of the lunar soil, the primary layer, the so-called regolith, there is an abundance of the very rare isotope helium-3 on Earth, which can be successfully used in the field of improving fuel quality and subsequently used for promising thermonuclear reactors.

Including, according to scientific sources, abundant deposits of water ice were found on the moon.


The ability to exploit the deep vacuum present on the moon, as well as cheap solar energy, open up radically new horizons for such spheres as:

  • Materials Science;
  • Electronics;
  • Metal processing;
  • Metallurgy.

Scientists managed not only to discover the minerals of the moon, but also to develop methods for their extraction. To date, many industrial mining methods from regolith have been developed:

  • Oxygen;
  • Multiple metals;
  • Helium-3.

Among other things, efficient and dynamic mining on the moon has become possible thanks to the use of modern technologies and equipment. It is worth noting that the conditions for creating microelectronic devices and metal processing procedures on Earth are very unfavorable due to the presence of large volumes of free oxygen in the atmosphere. It is oxygen that is a factor that significantly impairs the quality of welding and casting. In particular, oxygen is responsible for the fact that the production of microcircuit substrates in large volumes is almost impossible.

In addition to the fact that there is a mass of minerals on the Moon, many scientists note its benefits for humanity in that it can be brought to certain dangerous and harmful to the health of people of production, thereby preserving not only the health of all mankind, but also the health of the planet Earth, its ecology.

Lunar soil (regolith) and water

Lunar soil will be a source of water and fuel for space missions.

Over the past 4.5 billion years, the lunar surface has been exposed to solar and cosmic radiation, which subsequently turns its soil into regolith - gray and dry residual soil. For many, the fact that it contains water that can be collected and used in long-term space missions is surprising. The European Space Agency is well aware of this, so by 2019 it announced its intention to start mining lunar soil in 2025.

Regular meteor strikes raise water particles in the amount of 200 tons annually from the surface of the moon.

Lunar soil, like any other material from space, provides answers to many questions related not only to the universe, but also to such earthly things as physics and chemistry. Understanding what you will deal with on the surface of a space object, it is much easier to predict what difficulties you will have to face when trying to build something on it and whether it is worth doing it.

And by research and analysis, you can establish what happened in outer space millions and hundreds of millions of years ago. For example, whether the Moon is part of the Earth that broke off when hit by a meteorite, or whether there are particles on it that hit Earth, bringing life to it.

2020

First detailed geological map of the moon published

Specialists from the Scientific Center for Astrogeology of the Geological Survey USA (USGS), together with NASA engineers, created the "Unified Geological Map of the Moon" - the first detailed plan of the surface of the Earth's satellite. It is available[9] online and shows the geological structure[10] the Moon with incredible detail so far - at a scale of 1 in 5,000,000[11]

Orthographic projections of the "Unified Geologic Map of the Moon" showing the geology of the Moon’s near side (left) and far side (right) with shaded topography from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA). This geologic map is a synthesis of six Apollo-era regional geologic maps, updated based on data from recent satellite missions. It will serve as a reference for lunar science and future human missions to the Moon. Credit: NASA/GSFC/USGS.
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According to the creators of the map, their work is extremely important in light of plans to colonize the moon in the near future. "People have always been fascinated by the moon and the idea that we could [return to it]," says ex-NASA astronaut and current director of the geological survey Jim Reilly. "It's wonderful to see the USGS create a resource that can help NASA plan [lunar] missions in the future."
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To create the map, several images of the Moon from the time of the Apollo program were used, from 1961 to 1975. Most of these photos were taken by NASA Lunar Orbiter spacecraft. Additionally, updated information from satellite telescopes was also taken into account. Thus, new data on the equatorial regions of the Moon were obtained using the Japanese Kaguya apparatus, launched in 2007.

Also, experts have developed a universal stratigraphic description of the moon, determining the structure and age of its rocks. Thus, it was possible to resolve the contradictions that arose when using earlier maps, in which the age, characteristics and names of the breeds often differed greatly.

China has published a plan for mining lunar soil

The launch of the Chinese robotic mission "Moon 5" is scheduled for the end of this year. This is the third stage of the Chinese lunar research program "Chang'e": the delivery of lunar soil to Earth[12].

During the Luna 5 (Chang'e 5) mission, the Chinese apparatus should land in the Ryumker region, located in the north of the Ocean of Storms. This area is known for its volcanic activity in the past.

The mission consists of four main stages: entering the Earth's orbit, flying to the Moon, landing and returning to Earth. All this is done for the sake of two kilograms of lunar soil, taken not only from the surface, but also from the depths of the Earth's satellite. By comparison, the United States brought 382kg of lunar samples to Earth over six missions to the moon: rocks, core, soil and dust.

Lead author G. L. Zhang of the National Astronomical Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences detailed the main objectives of the lunar geological exploration project. Among them are not only the receipt of lunar samples, but the creation of special premises and laboratories for storing samples, as well as a backup storage facility, and the preparation and initial processing of lunar samples.


Samples from the surface and from the subsoil will be divided into four categories: samples for permanent storage, reserve samples for permanent storage, samples for scientific research and exhibition samples.

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"All instruments in contact with lunar soil samples are made of stainless steel, Teflon, quartz glass and other materials whose composition is known to eliminate errors in further scientific analysis. Content of water and oxygen in containers. Filled with nitrogen, it will be strictly controlled, which will protect lunar samples from terrestrial pollution, "Zhang notes.
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The Chinese are serious about processing, storing and pre-checking lunar samples. The described technology is in many ways similar to that used during the Appolon missions, noted former NASA astronomical materials curator Carlton Allen. "Nitrogen for the preparation, separation and storage of samples turned out to be quite enough," he said.

2019: Scientists increase 100-fold estimate of lunar crater water reserves

A comparison of circumpolar craters on the Moon and Mercury indicated that they could hide deposits of billions of tons of water ice - about 100 times more than previously thought, scientists write in a paper published in Nature Geoscience. However, this water quickly evaporates into space even from craters that are always in the shadows, the authors of another article published in Geophysical Research Letters have established[13] of[14].

Today, scientists have no doubt about the existence of significant reserves of water ice on the moon. In particular, a lot of water should be at the bottom of permanently shaded craters near the south pole. It is difficult to make more accurate estimates today, since at the moment the most detailed data are obtained by studying reflected light - this is how the LAMP device works on board the American LRO orbital probe. However, dark craters by definition have little light, so measurements do not allow small amounts of water to be recorded.

Astronomers from the University of California, Los Angeles, led by Lior Rubanenko, drew parallels between the Moon and Mercury. At the poles of these objects, despite the significant difference in distance to the Sun, the conditions are in many ways similar. In particular, the temperature in the shade and on the illuminated part is very different due to the almost complete absence of atmosphere.

The MESSENGER apparatus has collected the most detailed data on the shortest period planet of the solar system. In particular, on board was the Mercury Laser Altimeter, which allows you to measure the height of relief features. The authors of the work used this information to build a relationship between the size and depth of two thousand craters located at the north pole of Mercury. It turned out that craters become noticeably less deep closer to the pole, which scientists associate with the accumulation of precipitated substances, including water ice, and in some places the thickness of such covers is up to 50 meters.

Comparing the results with similar data for 12 thousand craters on the moon and revealed a similar dependence for the south pole of the nearest cosmic body. Researchers also attribute this to the accumulation of water ice. The spatial location of craters with known ice deposits correlates with a decrease in depth, which the authors consider to be confirmation of the proposed interpretation. If we assume that all 10 thousand square kilometers of shaded places on the surface of the moon are covered with a ten-meter layer of ice, then its total amount will be about 100 billion tons, which is about 100 times more than previous estimates.

Another work by scientists led by William Farrell, an employee of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, describes the effect of solar wind and micrometeorites on ice in shaded craters. The authors show that interaction with expanding plasma flows from the star and constantly falling small bodies leads to constant evaporation of the upper layers. This is due to the small gravity of the Moon and the lack of an atmosphere, which is why a microscopic particle knocked out of the surface can rise high above the surface, be under the influence of direct sunlight and fall only tens of kilometers from the previous place.

As a result, a layer about half a micron thick must collapse completely on a scale of two thousand years. According to researchers, there should be a rarefied cloud of water over polar craters with ice deposits. A large crater about 40 kilometers in diameter should emit approximately 1019 water molecules per second. Future measurements will be able to confirm this: the authors predict a concentration over craters of about 10 molecules in a cubic centimeter.

2018: India set to lead helium-3 mining on the moon

As the head of the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Dr. Kailasavadivu Sivan, told the press in June 2018, the main goal of the lunar mission, which ISRO intends to send to the Earth's satellite in October 2018, is to search for water and helium-3[15].

Dr. Sivan noted that the reserves of this isotope on the Moon are theoretically capable of providing global energy needs for at least 250 years. "Countries with the ability to deliver this source from the Moon to Earth will lead this process. I don't want to be just part of them, I want to be ahead of them, "NDTV quoted the head of ISRO on Wednesday.

According to Sivan, the upcoming Indian lunar mission will strengthen India's position among the states and companies participating in the race to the Moon, Mars and even further in the name of scientific, commercial or military purposes.

India plans to send an automatic Chandrayan-2 expedition to the Earth satellite in October as part of the orbital module and lander with a small lunar rover on board, which is to land in the South Pole of the Moon. ISRO notes that almost all lunar missions organized by different states in the past have explored mainly regions on the equator of the moon and so far no one has tried to seriously explore the poles.

What countries were on the moon

As of August 2019

For August 2019, the US tops the list with 30 successfully completed missions to the moon or its orbit between 1959 and 2013.

From 1959 to 1976, 23 such missions were completed in the USSR.

China stepped up its space program in the 2000s and carried out its first mission under the Chang'e program in 2007.

Israel is the only country that can only look back at failed missions. Their solo lunar mission, carried out by the nonprofit SpaceIL, crashed on the moon in February 2019.

Trump demands "not just presence, but dominance" in near space and sets the tasks of returning to the moon by 2024; China is going to build a base on the lunar pole by 2030; Russia thinks the same thing, India is preparing to land the first device on the moon in September, and even Israel, recently tried (simply did not work out).

Lunar program of the Russian Federation

Main article: Lunar program of Russia

US Lunar Program

Main article: US Lunar Program

China's Lunar Program

2024: China launches satellite for Earth-Moon communications

On March 20, 2024, China successfully launched the Queqiao-2 spacecraft (Queqiao-2). This satellite will have to perform the functions of a repeater to provide communication between the Earth and the moon for future space missions. Read more here.

2023

Pakistan joins Russian-Chinese lunar station project

The Space and Upper Atmosphere Exploration Commission Pakistan (SUPARCO) has become an official participant in the project of constructions the International Scientific Lunar Station (MNLS). The corresponding China National Space Administration (CNSA) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA agreement was signed by the head Zhang Kejian and the Pakistani ambassador to Moin ul Haq, who spoke on behalf of SUPARCO, on October 18, 2023. This was announced on October 23, 2023. Roskosmos More. here

China has presented a new generation spacecraft. It will send astronauts to the moon

On August 31, 2023, the China Manned Space Flight Agency (CMSA) presented a project for a new generation spacecraft, as well as a lander to be used in lunar missions. Read more here.

China reveals details of its moon base program

At the end of March 2023, China released some details about the program for the exploration of the moon and the construction of a habitable base on it. The key tasks will be lunar astronomy, Earth observation and the use of lunar resources directly on site.

Earlier, China announced a partnership with Russia to implement a lunar exploration program that will compete with NASA's large-scale Artemis (Artemis) project. We are talking about the creation of robotic landers, orbiters and sending missions with a crew. The culmination will be the creation of an outpost in the southern polar region of the Moon - the International Scientific Lunar Station (ILRS).

Visualization of the International Scientific Lunar Station

It is noted that the PRC plans to create a base model of a research station based on two planned missions by 2028. Subsequently, the complex will be expanded to an international base. The main goals of the program are to study the composition, process of formation and evolution of the moon. Finding and assessing where critical resources such as water ice are are vital to human exploration of the moon and could eventually lead to permanent lunar settlements.

The construction of the complex on the far side of the moon will open up new opportunities for astronomy, including radio astronomy. In this case, radio telescopes will not be affected by interference from equipment on Earth, and optical telescopes will not have to deal with light pollution or atmospheric distortion. Experts intend to study star formation, stellar activity and solar dynamics. These studies will allow scientists to learn more about "space weather" and how solar flares proceed. In general, as noted, the moon is the "main field" of deep space exploration, and the construction of a lunar scientific station will become a "historical necessity."[16]

2021: Russia and China agree on joint exploration of the moon

On March 9, 2021, Russia and China signed a memorandum on the joint development of the moon. The head of Roscosmos Dmitry Rogozin and the head of the Chinese National Space Administration (CNSA) Zhang Kejian, on behalf of governments, agreed on cooperation, within which it is planned to create an international scientific station on the moon or in its orbit. Read more here.

2020: Chinese apparatus "Chang'e-5" landed on the moon

On December 1, 2020, TASS Information Agency of Russia reported that the module of the Chinese mission "Chang'e-5" landed on the surface of the moon. This was reported by the China National Space Administration (CNSA).

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After landing, the lander under control from the Earth officially began its work on the surface of the moon, which will last two days, the message says.
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At 22:57 Beijing time (17:57 Moscow time), the lander, which includes the take-off module, began to descend from a height of 15 km from the lunar surface. With the help of an engine with a capacity of 7.5 kilonewtons, it extinguished the speed from 1.7 km per second to zero. The landing occurred not far from the calculated place at 23:11 Beijing time (18:11 Moscow time) at a point with coordinates of 43 degrees and 1 minutes of north latitude and 51 degrees and 8 minutes of west longitude. According to the agency, the lander has already transmitted pictures of the landing area.

The landing site is near the Sharpe furrow north of Rumker Peak in the area of ​ ​ the largest lunar sea - the Ocean of Storms - in the northwest of the visible part of the moon. As the developers of the Chinese lunar mission noted, the geological age of the surface in this area is relatively small and is about 3.7 billion years. Obtaining rock samples from this part of the Earth's natural satellite will allow scientists to gain a more complete understanding of the history of volcanic activity on the moon, its evolution and formation.

After landing, the module will begin drilling and collecting samples of regolith (lunar soil) both from a depth of about 2 m, and, using a mechanical manipulator, from the surface of a natural Earth satellite. In total, it is planned to collect 2 kg of rock, which will be placed in a vacuum container.

After that, a special module with the help of an engine with a thrust of 3 kN will take off and automatically dock with the Chang'e-5 orbital module, where the soil will be moved to the returned capsule. Then the take-off module will separate from the orbital module, and the latter will head towards Earth.

At a distance of about 5 thousand kilometers from the Earth, the returned capsule will separate from the orbital module. Its landing will be carried out along a trajectory with the so-called double immersion in the atmosphere: during the first entry, it will extinguish the speed, after which the capsule will leave the Earth's atmosphere in an elliptical orbit, and then re-enter it and make a soft landing in the autonomous region of Inner Mongolia in the north of the PRC.

Initially, the Chang'e-5 mission was planned for 2017, but due to the unsuccessful launch of the Changzheng-5 launch vehicle (CZ-5), it was postponed first to the end of 2019, and then to November 2020. As a result, the launch took place on November 24.

If successful, the Chang'e-5 mission will deliver samples of lunar soil to Earth for the first time in 44 years (after Luna-24 in 1976), and China will become the third country after the United States and the USSR to successfully[17].

2018: China to plant potatoes and flowers on the moon

As part of the Lunar Minibiosphere program, the PRC will deliver seeds of potatoes and other plants to the moon in 2018, Xinhua China[18] in April 2018[19] The seeds will be delivered using the Chang'e-4 module[20] will[21] the[22].

One of the problems that Chinese scientists will have to face is maintaining a normal temperature for seeds, since the thermometer on the moon ranges from -100 to + 100 C °.

"We must keep the temperature in the'minibiosphere' in the range of 1 to 30 degrees, while at the same time moderately controlling the level of humidity and the supply of nutrients. In addition, using a special device, we will send reflected light from the surface of the moon to the jar to help plant growth, "said Xie Genxin, chief developer of the experiment
.

"During the experiment, we intend to study seed breathing and photosynthesis of plants on the moon," the developers add.

The Zernos will be delivered in tin containers equipped with a chamber and a system for supplying nutrients for plants. In addition, water and air will be supplied to them. The height of the container will be 18 cm, diameter - 16 cm, volume - 0.8 l, weight - 3 kg.

The Lunar Minibiosphere project was selected from more than 200 other projects that participated in the competition for the development of the plan for the first lunar biological project (the competition was announced by the China National Space Administration). In total, 28 universities in China took part in the development of the program.

Lunar program of Germany

2018: 4G will hit the moon in a year

Nokia and mobile operator Vodafon, backed by German space company Part-Time Scientists, have deployed a 4G network on the moon, Engadget[23] in early[24]. They will deliver telecommunications equipment to the Earth's natural satellite in 2019[25] will appear on the[26].

In 2016, the private German company PTScientists announced its intention to send a pair of Lunar Quattro rovers designed in conjunction with Audi to the moon. They will land near the landing site of the Apollo 17 spacecraft, which hosted the last manned flight to the Earth's satellite, and assess the condition of the lunar rover left there in 1972. It will be the first ever private mission to the moon. Its start is scheduled for 2019. Initially, it was planned to use analog radio for communication with the Earth and communication between rovers. However, 4G uses less power, which will allow more data to be transmitted.

The network will be based on Nokia Ultra Compact Network technology based on a small cell. This is a small portable equipment for rapid 4G network deployment that fits in a backpack and weighs less than five kilograms. At 1800 megahertz, lunar rovers will send data to the Autonomous Landing and Navigation Module (ALINA), which will then transmit it to the mission control center in Berlin. In particular, rovers will send HD video, pictures and results of scientific experiments to Earth.

It is noted that lunar rovers will receive approximately 90 watts of energy from solar panels. Half of this volume will be needed in order to set the devices in motion, and half will be used for communication with the Earth. The SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket will be used to launch the lunar rovers, but to reduce costs, PTScientists will share the payload with other companies.

Israel's Lunar Program

2020: Israel plans to send spacecraft to the moon in 2024

In December 2020, it became known about Israel's plans to launch a new lander called Bereshit-2 on the moon, which is scheduled for 2024. This was reported by the TASS news agency Russian News Agency, citing data from SpaceIL.

File:Aquote1.png
"We are proud to announce that Beresheet-2 will go to the moon in the first half of 2024. The station will include two landers, each of which will conduct experiments on the surface of the moon, as well as an orbiter that will remain in orbit for several years, "SpaceIL said in a statement. It was also announced that work on the creation of the Bereshit-2 station SpaceIL will be carried out in conjunction with Israel Aerospace Industries, as well as the Israeli Space Agency.
File:Aquote2.png

Recall that SpaceIL's plans to launch a new lunar vehicle were announced in April 2019, a few days after the first Beresheet probe crashed on the lunar surface. It is worth noting that Bereshit is the first device in history that was created by a private company and managed to reach the surface of the Earth's satellite.

Work on the creation of the Berishit device began in 2011 as part of the Google Lunar X Prize competition. To win it, it was necessary to create a spacecraft without state funding and deliver it to the lunar surface. According to the terms of the competition, by March 31, 2018, the device was supposed to overcome at least 500 meters on the surface of the moon, but none of the participants was able to fulfill these conditions, so the winner was never identified.

Despite this, SpaceIL continued development and on February 22, 2019 sent its device to outer space using the SpaceX Falcon 9 launch vehicle. Two and a half months later, Berishit was supposed to make a soft landing on the surface of the moon, but crashed. According to available data, the cause of the accident was a malfunction of the main engine. It is worth noting that even this achievement was estimated in the Google Lunar X Prize and SpaceIL received $1 million, although its device never traveled the desired distance on the lunar surface.

Lunar Program South Korea Lunar Program

2023: Hyundai to create its own self-driving lunar rover

Hyundai Motor Group announced that she had started construction moon rover in collaboration with major the Korean research and institutes hopes to launch it on the moon in 2027. This became known on April 21, 2023. More. here

Japan's Lunar Program

2023: Japanese lander crashes on Moon after faulty software

On May 26, 2023, ispace released the results of an investigation into the causes of the crash of the Hakuto-R lunar lander. According to experts, the accident occurred due to the fault of the onboard software. Read more here.

2022: Japan sends Hakuto-R lander to moon

No sooner had the Orion lunar module of the American Artemis 1 program returned to Earth, which had safely splashed in the Pacific Ocean and had already been taken aboard by a US Navy landing craft than Japan went to the moon. This became known on December 14, 2022. Read more here.

2017: Japan to build underground base on moon

The Japanese satellite Kaguya has discovered an underground cave on the moon, which in the future will be suitable for the construction of a lunar base[27].

Researchers at the Japanese National Aerospace Agency (JAXA) noted that the discovered cave is 50 km long and approximately 100 m wide. Presumably, it was formed as a result of volcanic activity, and its age is about three and a half billion years. There is a cave in the area of ​ ​ the Marius crater on the outside of the moon.

The discovery of an underground cave of this size increases the chances of scientists building an extraterrestrial base on the moon. Natural natural formation will make it possible to protect people from harmful cosmic radiation.

According to researcher Unishi Haruyama, scientists allowed the presence of such large geological formations, and only now the theory has been confirmed. In the course of further research, scientists will find out all the characteristics of the cave.

Lunar program of Turkey

2021: Plan to launch moon lander with own launcher

According to Turkey's updated space program for February 2021, the first part of the mission to the moon is scheduled for the end of 2023: SpaceX's Falcon 9 heavy-class launch vehicle puts the first Turkish lunar orbiter into low Earth orbit. After separation of the lunar orbiter, a hybrid rocket engine is launched and the lunar orbiter is guided to the moon (hard landing).

The second part of the Turkish lunar mission: in 2028, Turkey plans to launch a lunar lander with its own launcher.

Lunar program in India

2023

Indian moon rover Pragyan makes successful moon landing

On August 23, 2023, India became the first country in the world to successfully land a spacecraft at the south pole of the moon. The lander of the Chandrayan-3 Indian automatic lunar station made a soft landing, the Indian Space Research Organization said. Read more here.

India successfully launches rocket with lunar station

On July 14, 2023, the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) announced the successful launch of the Mark-3 (LVM3) rocket with the Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft (Chandrayaan-3), an automatic interplanetary station designed to explore the moon. Read more here.

Studying the Moon in Italy

1609: Galileo Moon Map

Map of the Moon, created by Galileo, November 30, 1609.

In 1609, Galileo first sketched the moon using a 32x telescope. Thanks to this, it was possible to confirm that the Moon is not a smooth sphere, as previously thought, but has a pronounced relief with mountains and lowlands. From the shadows from the mountains, it was even possible to determine their average height - about seven kilometers.

Шаблон:Theme Space

Notes

  1. The theory of the origin of the moon was tested by a nuclear explosion
  2. The mystery of the appearance of the moon is revealed
  3. Oxygen of terrestrial origin was found on the moon
  4. There is no oxygen on the moon, but it still "rusts."
  5. Why fly to the moon at all - and is it possible?.
  6. Lava tube Material from Wikipedia - a free encyclopedia
  7. Lava tubes: the hidden sites for future human habitats on the Moon and Mars
  8. Colonistam on the Moon and Mars offered to live in lava tubes
  9. from the USGS Releases First-Ever Comprehensive Geologic Map of the Moon
  10. of
  11. The first detailed geological map of the Moon has been published.
  12. China has published a plan for the extraction of lunar soil
  13. [https://nplus1.ru/news/2019/07/24/moon-water. Scientists have increased the estimate
  14. water reserves in lunar craters by 100 times]
  15. India intends to become the leader in the extraction of helium-3 on the moon
  16. China Hints at Its Goals for a Lunar Base
  17. land on the moon
  18. [http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-04/12/c_137106440.htm Focus: Flowers on the Moon reported
  19.  ? ]China's Chang'e-4 to launch lunar spring.
  20. [https://www.if24.ru/kitaj-posadit-na-lune-kartofel-i-tsvety/. China
  21. plant potatoes and flowers on
  22. moon]
  23. [https://www.engadget.com/2018/02/27/nokia-vodafone-4g-moon/ Nokia and Vodafone will bring 4G to the Moon reported
  24. 2018]
  25. [https://nplus1.ru/news/2018/03/01/moon-4G. In a year, 4G
  26. moon]
  27. Japan will build an underground base on the moon