Neolithic in Russia

Main article: History of Russia

Paleolith

Main article: Paleolithic in Russia

VIII thousand BC.

Settlement on the Novgorod settlement

Main article: Novgorod region

According to excavations, people have continuously lived on the site of the future Novgorod settlement since the Neolithic (VIII-III millennium BC).

Unornamented dishes with Anatolian-Middle Eastern influence in Rakushechny Yar in the Rostov region

In the steppe zone of Eastern Europe for 2014, several independent centers were allocated, where the Neolithic package spreads and in which the production of pottery appears earlier. Cultural impulses, recorded arechologically by ceramics - "ceramic waves" - begin to emanate from these centers to the entire space of the East European Plain (Mazurkevich, Dolbunova 2012).

The addition of one of the ceramic centers in Nizhny Podonya occurs at the end of the VIII - beginning of the VII thousand BC. e. This time is comparable to the dates of early Neolithic (ceramic) monuments of the Middle East and Anatolia (see Chatalkhoyuk). The appearance of the most archaic unornamented dishes in this region on the Rakushechny Yar monument, apparently, should be associated with the Anatolian-Middle Eastern influence, which is confirmed by the peculiarities of morphology and technology for the manufacture of vessels, the presence of painted vessels, stone vessels, the appearance of a manufacturing economy, architecture (Belanovskaya 1995: Figure XXVII-3; Kozlowski et al. 2005: fig. 3.1.1; Vandiver 1987: 9–23; M. le Mière et al. 1999: 5–16; Nishiaki et al. 2005: 59–63; Voigt 1983). Similar chains and their modifications are common in the territories of the Dnieper-Dvinsky interfluve (phase "a-1"), the Upper Volga region (monument to Zamostier 2, type 4, 7), the Upper Dnieper region, the Valdai region (type 1). There are similar vessels in the materials of monuments of the Middle and Lower Volga regions, but here, unlike the Rakushechny Yar monument, they do not form the basis of the future Early Neolithic complex.

VII thousand BC.

The explosion of the manufacture of ceramics from the Lower Podonye and the Lower Volga region to the Upper Volga due to its prestige at the "feasts"

For 2014, the question of when and what ceramics first appears on the territory of Russia has not yet had an unambiguous answer. The issues of the mechanism of its appearance and distribution are still under development and heated discussions. The question of the character of the flint industries accompanying the earliest ceramics also remains open.

The explosive nature of the spread of early ceramics in the territory from the Lower Podonye and the Lower Volga region to the Upper Volga cannot but cause surprise and attempts to explain this phenomenon. Without going into numerous discussions on this issue, one possible reason for the explanation may be the presence of a powerful cultural impulse that led to the emergence of the tradition of making ceramics (Mazurkevich 1995:82). One of the reasons for this may be the idea of ​ ​ prestige of the emerging pottery (Mazurkevich, Dolbunova 2009). In this regard, researchers are interested in highlighting practical and prestigious technologies (Hayden, Practical and prestige technologies: The evolution of material systems, 1998). Prestigious technologies easily disguise themselves as practical, and in the archaeological context they can easily be overlooked. The logic and strategy for creating prestigious and practical artifacts is fundamentally different.

An important feature of prestigious things is the certain complexity of their manufacture, requiring the presence of existing skills, materials, etc. Prestigious things play an active role in the functioning of the cultural system, they can also serve practical needs daily (Hayden 1998: 11-18). Moreover, over time, prestigious technologies can be included in the everyday life and many elements that were initially prestigious (architecture, stone vessels, cattle breeding, agriculture, clay vessels, etc.) have entered the category of practical technologies. Earthenware is included in the list of the most common types of prestigious technologies. A series of studies from various parts of the world showed that the earliest ceramics were used initially in a prestigious context, most likely as part of the "feasts."

Elshan culture in the Middle Volga region with the oldest ceramics in Europe

Main article: Elshan culture

Elshan culture - Eastern European subneolithic archaeological culture of the 7th millennium BC. e. The area covers the Middle Volga region (Samara, Ulyanovsk regions, Buzuluk district of the Orenburg region). The oldest ceramic culture in Europe.

Pottery in a strident manner and with triangular inclusions on the Lower Volga and in the Northern Caspian region

In the basin of the Lower Volga and the Northern Caspian at the beginning of VII thousand BC. e. Another tradition of making ceramics, ornamented in a dash-receding manner and triangular knobs (Vybornov 2008). It is these monuments that can be associated with the first stage in the spread of ceramic traditions. Later complexes represent already flint materials and ceramic traditions that develop locally.

The cultural impulse from this center is recorded on a huge territory, covering the cultures of the forest-steppe and forest zone of Eastern Europe (Miklyaev et al. 1987; Mazurkiewicz 1995). A few vessels, ornamented with freestanding triangular inclusions, are also found in the lower layers of the Rakushechny Yar monument along with unornamented ceramics. So far, the question of the origins of this ceramic tradition and its relationship with the shell-noyar tradition remains open. Ceramics with knitted-drawn and knitted ornaments are presented on the monuments of the Middle and Upper Volga regions, Podonye, Upper Dnieper region, Dnieper-Dvinsky interfluve (phase "a," "b"), river basin Desna, Valdai region (included in materials of type 1), Suro-Mokshansky interfluve.

V thousand BC.

Holocene Atlantic Climate Optimum: Climate Warmer Than Modern Times

The natural and climatic conditions in Neolithic times were mostly determined by the Atlantic climatic optimum of the Holocene and, to a much lesser extent, the subboreal period. During the Atlantic period (6000-2600 years BC), the greatest shift of physico-geographical zones to the north was observed. This period is characterized mainly by a warm and humid climate, although different climatic phases with more and less moisture are distinguished. According to spore-pollen analysis, it is possible to reconstruct in the main features the nature of vegetation, which was much more heat-loving than in later times. Mixed, mainly broad-leaved forests with the participation of conifers prevailed in the forest zone, replaced only in the north by dark coniferous taiga. Most of Western and Central Europe was covered with broad-leaved forests, steppe spaces were characterized by rich forbs.

At the beginning of the Atlantic period, black earth soils are formed in the southern regions, and podzolic and swamp soils in the more northern regions. The animal kingdom was more diverse and richer than the modern world, which corresponded to the plant cover. Even in the northern regions lived tour, red deer, wild boar, not counting such traditionally forest animals as elk, bear, beaver, sable, marten, squirrel and many others. Among the birds there was a lot of waterfowl, rivers and lakes were replete with fish. The seashores served as an excellent base for marine gathering, fishing and hunting the sea beast.

Upper Volga, Middle Don and Desninsky cultures

The early Neolithic in the European part of Russia includes cultures:

• early Valdai,
• Upper Volga,
• sperrings,
• Narva,
• Neman,
• Serteyskaya,
• Rudnyanskaya,
• Middle Don,
• early stage of Desnine culture,
• early stages of Volga-Kama culture.

The most ancient are the Upper Volga, Middle Don and Desninsky monuments, the emergence of which probably dates back to the border of the VI-V millennium BC, the time of their distribution is V-IV millennium BC.

There were many similarities in the material culture of carriers of early Neolithic cultures: small sites were located along the banks of lakes and small rivers. As a rule, there were several dwellings in the settlement, but there were also short-term commercial camps with light hut-like structures. Dwellings of this period are represented by ground forms and semi-dugouts, with a frame of poles covered with skins, rounded or quadrangular in plan.

Pottery is widely found in forest neolithic settlements. The most common types of vessels were round-bottomed and austrodonic, the entire outer surface or its upper part was ornamented. Ornamentation is knitted, pitted, comb-shaped. According to early typological schemes widely accepted in archaeological science, round-bottomed dishes preceded flat-bottomed ones. However, modern research suggests that this is not true for all archaeological cultures; so, in a number of the earliest cultures, for example, Narva, there are flat-bottomed forms of vessels.

The main types of hunting weapons are represented by numerous and diverse small flint and bone arrowheads, which had a leaf-shaped, triangular or rhombic shape. Spear tips most often repeat the shapes of arrowheads, although leaf-shaped ones prevail.

Stone inventory is often close to Mesolithic, but in its manufacture in a larger volume, jet retouching, sawing and grinding were used. Scrapers are widespread, among which new shapes appear - scrapers of quadrangular outlines, treated with retouching on three, and sometimes on four sides, rounded or completely round, treated around the perimeter. A variety of knives, punctures, carvers are often found. Incisors are distributed in a relatively narrow territory, including the Upper Volga region, the Upper and Middle Dnieper regions, and the Southern Urals. Burial grounds are extremely rare.

The early Neolithic cultures of the forest zone differ very slightly from the Mesolithic ones. The only significant difference is the finds of ceramic vessels of different sizes, in which food was cooked and stocks were stored. The proximity to the Mesolithic in the material culture of the early Neolithic population is explained in some cases by the continuity of traditions (many researchers point to the connection of the Upper Volga culture with Butovo), the lack of abrupt changes in the economy and the similarity of the natural environment.

The northwestern regions (part of the Leningrad Region and Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia) were occupied by tribes of Narva and Neman cultures (V-IV millennium BC). The lack of deposits of high-quality flint contributed to the widespread use of bone tools and the development of standard techniques for their manufacture. Good flint was imported from more southern areas, and, on the contrary, beautiful Baltic amber was exported to other areas.

Neolithic Trans-Urals and Western Siberia

The Neolithic of the Eastern Trans-Urals and Western Siberia has not yet been fully studied, but some of its common features can be distinguished, first of all, this is a long experience of Mesolithic traditions in stone processing. In the first half of the Neolithic era, most of the Trans-Ural-West Siberian region was occupied by a single giant ethnocultural massif, the most characteristic feature of its material culture was ceramics, ornamented with combinations of straight and wavy lines drawn with a stick or made with a retreating spatula, and various incandescent depressions.

In the late Neolithic, inside this massif, apparently under the influence of the influx of a new population, two new ornamentation options took shape - comb and comb-pit. The first initially appeared and spread in the areas of the Eastern Trans-Urals, and the second - mainly in the Middle Irtysh region. In the Trans-Urals and Western Siberia, the chronological sequence of these three ornamental traditions is not clearly expressed, although a number of researchers believe that the first (retreating spatula and drawn lines) decorative complex arose earlier than the comb and comb-pit. However, the fact of their long coexistence is also undoubted.

In the Southern and Western Trans-Urals, Tashbulat and Pribel cultures were distinguished, the dating of which is quite debatable and ranges from VI to IV millennium BC. Their material culture has many similar features.

Ceramic vessels are small, austrodonic and rounded, having elongated proportions, the corolla is bent outward. The ornament, drawn-knitted or printed-knitted, is located in the form of belts of straight and inclined prints, often in the form of a "walking comb." Flint inventory is lamellar, close to Mesolithic, especially at an early stage. The main occupation of the population was hunting and fishing, although there is evidence that cattle appear in the later stages. Burials and dwellings have not yet been found.

In the lower reaches of the river. Tobol distinguished two cultures - Koshkin and Boborykinskaya, whose economy was purely appropriating.

The area of ​ ​ the Koshkin culture captures the Lower Prytobole and part of the Middle Trans-Urals, it dates from the 5th millennium BC. Ceramic vessels are represented by austrodonic and flat-bottomed forms with a beveled corolla. The vessels are ornamented with horizontal wavy or zigzag lines made by drawing or a receding stick.

Stone tools are made mainly on plates. The set of tools is characteristic of tribes of forest hunters and fishermen - these are a variety of arrowheads, scrapers, knives, fishing gear, cutting tools. Dwellings are represented by dugouts up to 1.5 m deep or ground buildings, the area of ​ ​ residential objects ranges from 40 to 60 square meters. m

Neolithic of Eastern Siberia and the Far East

Small groups of semi-nomadic hunters and anglers in the Baikal region and the Upper Lena

In the few Neolithic sites, no traces of long-term residential structures were found, the only traces of dwellings are small foci covered or paved with large river pebbles. On settlements, near foci, they find the remains of vessels, rare stone and bone products, bones of wild animals, mainly roe deer and elk, small holes for storing fish. All this together allows most researchers to consider the Neolithic population of the Baikal region and the Upper Lena as semi-nomadic hunters and fishermen, united in small groups.

The Neolithic of the Baikal region is divided into three chronological stages. The stone industry of the early stages, Kitoi and Isakovsky, is characterized by the presence of a large number of polished braids and axes, large inserts with tips and knives. Many products, mainly hunting weapons, are made of fossil mammoth bone and tusk.

1 - Bugo-Dniester culture; 2 - Dnieper-Donetsk culture; 3 - Narva-Neman culture; 4 - Lyalovsky culture; 5 - Neolithic of Kola Peninsula; 6 - Jaitun culture; 7 - Chinese culture; 8 - Isakov and Serov cultures; 9 - pit-comb cultural and historical community

In the later stages of the Neolithic culture (Serov), tools become smaller, large polished forms are relatively rare, but numerous green jade tools appear. This stone served as an exchange with other tribes.

Ceramic vessels of the Neolithic Baikal region are small and thin-walled. The latter circumstance is associated with a special technique for their manufacture - knocking out, in which the walls were gouged out with a special beater on a massive dummy placed inside the vessel. The vessels are round-bottomed, traces of a peg are visible on the outer surface of the walls, in addition, they are decorated with seals and depressions in the upper part.

The materials of the early burial grounds speak of the property equality of all groups of the population. Funerary equipment, as a rule, is not rich and is represented mainly by jewelry made of mother of pearl or white jade. Sometimes there are items of hunting weapons - flint arrowheads, bone daggers with flint inserts; it was in the burials that composite bows with bone covers were found.

Parking-workshops and camps of reindeer hunters in Yakutia

Yakutia and northeast Asia are areas of settlement for reindeer hunters, who led an even more mobile lifestyle than the population of the Baikal region. These areas are characterized by archaeological sites of two types: these are parking lots-workshops located at the exits of stone raw materials, and camps dedicated to the places of traditional reindeer crossings through rivers. It was there that the mass slaughter of these animals took place, and the main food supplies were made. Near such settlements are burials and sacrificial sites associated with hunting magic.

Nomadic hunters and river anglers in Chukotka, Sakhalin and Kamchatka

Similar to the Yakut monuments were left by tribes of nomadic hunters and river fishermen who lived on the expanses of Chukotka, Sakhalin, Kamchatka remote from the sea coasts. The most complete idea of ​ ​ the material culture of these people is given by monuments of the Ushkin culture of Kamchatka. Neolithic tribes that settled on the coast of the Sea of ​ ​ Okhotsk and further to the north, over 1000 km of the sea coast, lived hunting for the sea beast, creating a special world of sea St. John's wort, which changed very little over the next millennia. Similar Neolithic cultures are also known on the coast of Alaska.

Novopetrovskaya and Gromatukhinsky cultures in the Amur region

The populations of the Amur region and Southern Primorye during the Neolithic era were heavily influenced by neighboring cultures of North Korea, China and Japan. A feature of the development of this region of Southeast and East Asia was the early appearance of ceramics and the rapid transition from intensive gathering to producing forms of farming. The Mesolithic stage here is also very short and peculiar, as in the Middle East. Neighboring territories developed in a similar way, which was largely determined by a mild climate, rich animals and vegetation.

The early Neolithic of the Amur region is represented by the Novopetrovian (V millennium BC) and Gromatukhin (V-IV millennium BC) cultures. The most archaic in appearance of the inventory is Gromatukhinskaya: there are many large rough pebble tools, leaf-shaped blade tips, but at the same time the correct prismatic and conical nuclei are presented. Textile ornament on ceramics makes it related to ceramics characteristic of forest hunters of Yakutia.

In the material culture of the Novopetrov culture, both archaic features are traced - the Mesolithic character of the flint inventory, and Neolithic ones - among the tools are polished adzes, hoe, axes, quite a lot of ceramics. Flat-bottomed vessels, as a rule, unornamented, have a bucket-shaped shape.

Osinoozerskaya is the oldest agricultural culture in the Far East, apparently connected by its origin with Novopetrovskaya. Millet grains and vessels with holes in the body intended for grain steaming were found at the sites in the remains of semi-earths. In the stone inventory there are hoe and grain grinders. Stone tools were made of chalcedon and jasper. Arrowheads and liner guns are treated with the thinnest retouching.

Developed and Late Neolithic

Sites of the developed and late Neolithic differ from the Early Neolithic in a large area, a more powerful cultural layer, an abundance of ceramic vessels, the remains of large dwellings and a significant number of burial grounds. All this speaks of the stability of the appropriating economy and its effectiveness - the population and its settlement are increasing.

A significant role in the formation of the developed and late forest neolithic was played by tribes who decorated their ceramics with pit-comb ornaments. They are represented by a number of archaeological cultures and their local variants. However, until now, many of the issues related to their origin, the definition of criteria for highlighting local options, chronology, remain debatable.

IV thousand BC.

Boborykinskaya culture from Western Kazakhstan to Nizhny Prytobolye

Monuments of Boborykin culture occupy the territory from Western Kazakhstan to Nizhny Prytobol and date from the middle of the IV to the beginning of the III millennium BC. Ceramic vessels are represented by ostrodonic and can forms. Ornament - drawing, retreating spatula and pit depressions. It is located only in the upper and bottom parts of the vessels in the form of horizontal stripes.

Tools made of flint, quartzite, slate are made mainly on plates, but there are also grinding cutting tools. Geometric microliths are found, most often trapezoids. Dwellings - rectangular semi-dugouts with an area of ​ ​ 25 to 56 square meters. m. Burial grounds have not yet been discovered.

III thousand BC.

2600 BC: Cold snap of the subboreal period

At the beginning of the subboreal period (2600-1200 years BC), some cooling occurred, which led in subsequent stages to the aridization of the climate, causing corresponding changes in the environment.

Zaisanovskaya culture of Southern Primorye and Lower Amur culture

The Late Neolithic is represented by the Zaisan culture of Southern Primorye and the Lower Amur culture, which date from the III - beginning of the II millennium BC. In the inventory of the Lower Amur culture there are many polished braids and axes. The ceramics are flat-bottomed, richly ornamented with spiral curls and vertical zigzags, so on. "Amur wicker." There are clay figures of turtles and fish. A farm specializing in sedentary fishing and marine gathering led to sustainable settlement, and favorable climatic conditions subsequently contributed to the development of agriculture.

In the inventory of the Zaisanov culture there are teachers and lovelins, axes and tesla, triangular knives. The ceramics are decorated with drawn ornaments, cord prints in the form of triangles. Judging by the materials of the sites, the population was engaged in hunting, fishing, agriculture, bred pigs.

At the end of the Neolithic, the population of the Far East is divided into farmers and traditional hunter-gatherers-fishermen.

II thousand BC.

The emergence of property inequality in the Baikal region

The last stage of the Baikal Neolithic dates back to the beginning of the II millennium BC, the line with the eneolite is indistinguishable here, as evidenced by rare finds of metal objects. In some burials of this period, rich funerary equipment was found, in other burials it is practically absent. Judging by these data, we can talk about the emergence of property inequality or the appearance of some socially significant members of the team.

Notes