Main article: Costa Rica
2022
Costa Rica declared an emergency mode due to a large-scale hacker attack. Ministries cannot work
On May 12, 2022, the Costa Rican government declared a state of emergency after ransomware hackers damaged the computer networks of several government agencies, including the Ministry of Finance.
An official statement published on the government website said the attack was "unprecedented in the country," that it interrupted tax collection in the country and revealed the personal information of citizens.
Hackers initially entered the Ministry of Finance on April 12, 2022, the report said. They were able to extend to other departments, including the Ministry of Science, Technology and Telecommunications and the National Meteorological Institute.
 | The government was very, very hurt. At the moment, it is impossible to estimate the losses, "said Weinstock. |  |
Ransomware hackers encrypt the victims' computer networks and demand payment, which, they say, will unlock them, although this process does not always work. Costa Rica has never considered paying the ransom because participating in such negotiations is contrary to national law, Weinstock said.
The President of Costa Rica, Rodrigo Chavez, took office on Sunday 8 May. According to Weinstock, the emergency declaration gives him the right to hire external cybersecurity experts without waiting for the permission of the country's legislative assembly.
Conti, one of the most dangerous active groups involved in the distribution of extortion software, takes responsibility for the attack. Ransom distribution groups often try to extort money from victims by threatening to publish stolen data, and Conti published a large cache of documents, allegedly from Costa Rica's government websites, on its dark website on May 8.
Conti, best known for breaking into and seriously disrupting Ireland's national health care system in 2021.
The US Department of State said that this group was responsible for the hacking of Costa Rica, and offered a $10 million reward for helping to hold Conti hackers accountable.[1]
Ex-Finance Minister Rodrigo Chavez wins presidential election
At the beginning of April, 2022 the former economist Vsemirnogo bankarodrigo Chavez won presidential elections in Costa Rica. He beat his rival Jose Maria Figueres, who had previously led the country. In total, about 3.5 million residents of Costa Rica had the right to vote in the elections. No violations recorded during the elections were reported. More details here.
2018: Carlos Alvarado Quesada at 38 years old became the youngest president in the history of the country
During the second round of elections in April 2018, according to the Supreme Electoral Tribunal of Costa Rica, Carlos Alvarado Quesada enlisted the support of 60.74% of voters. His rival Candidate from the opposition National Revival Party Fabricio Alvarado Muñoz received 39.26% of the vote. More than 2 million people took part in the elections, according to La Nacion. In the first round of elections, which took place on February 4, Muñoz won 24.9% of the vote, 21.6% of voters voted for Quesada.
38-year-old Carlos Alvarado became the 48th and youngest president of Costa Rica. Quesada in his election campaign promised to solve the issue of unemployment, problems with security, poverty and social inequality, as well as the crisis in road infrastructure. He also promised to create a "national government."[2].
His predecessor, member of the Civic Action party, Louis Guillermo Solis, has held the presidency since May 2014.
2006: Sanchez is elected president for the second time
In 2006, O. Arias Sanchez was again elected president of the country. In January 2007, his government adopted the State Plan for Socio-Economic Development for a three-year period, which provides for the modernization of the production base of major industries, the development of infrastructure, the use of science-intensive technologies, reducing poverty, strengthening the health and social security system, and taking measures to combat corruption and crime. Costa Rica declared the consistent implementation of the principle of permanent active unarmed neutrality, as well as the implementation of a course aimed at protecting human rights and freedoms and democratic institutions around the world.
1990s: Time of the Social Christian Unity Party
Since the 1990s, the Social Christian Unity party began to play a large role in the political life of Costa Rica (formed in 1984). Its representatives for several years served as president of the country: in 1990-1994 R.A. Calderon Fournier, in 1998-2002 M.A. Rodriguez Echeverria, in 2002-2006 A.P. de la Espriella. In an attempt to overcome inflation and boost economic growth, the Costa Rican government has reduced social programs, privatized public-sector enterprises, and lifted many financial and banking restrictions on national and foreign capital.
1986: President Sanchez closes Contras camps in the country
The principle of unarmed neutrality began to be strictly observed during the presidency of O. Arias Sanchez (1986-1990 years). He closed the Contras camp located in Costa Rica near the Nicaraguan border - paramilitary groups that fought with US support against the government of D. Ortega Saavedra. In 1987, Arias Sanchez proposed a plan for the peaceful settlement of internal conflicts in El Salvador and Nicaragua, which provided for the conclusion of a truce between the government and the rebel forces, guaranteed amnesty to all political prisoners, and also set a time frame for free and democratic elections in Central American countries.
1982: Monge Alvarez - President: economic assistance from the United States and their support in the fight against the guerrillas of El Salvador
In 1982, the post of president of the country was taken by a member of the PNO L.A. Monge Alvarez. In 1983, his government proclaimed the principle of permanent unarmed neutrality of Costa Rica. However, seeking economic assistance from the American government, Monge Alvarez was forced to commit himself to assisting the United States in the fight against the guerrilla movement in Central America, especially in El Salvador.
1978: Carazo Odio - President of Costa Rica
In 1978, the candidate from the conservative coalition R. Caraso Odio won the presidential election. His tenure was marked by some crisis phenomena in the country's economy associated with rising world oil prices and falling coffee revenues, as well as political destabilization in the Central American region.
1970: Figueres Ferrer becomes president for the third time
In 1970, H. Figueres Ferrer again became president of the country. His government was committed to strengthening diplomatic, trade, economic and cultural relations with socialist countries.
In 1972, the USSR Embassy in San Jose was opened. In 1970, Costa Rica established diplomatic relations with Hungary and Romania, in 1972 - with Czechoslovakia and Poland, in 1973 - with the GDR.
Figueres Ferrer nationalized the property of foreign railway companies, forbade US oil trusts to conduct oil exploration and production in the coastal areas and territorial waters of Costa Rica.
1960s: A policy of close cooperation with the United States
In the late 1950-1960s, the Costa Rican government pursued a policy of close cooperation with the United States. Under Presidents M. Echandi Jimenez (1958-1962), F. H. Orlich Bolmarich (1962-1966) and H. H. Trejos Fernandez (1966-1970), US investments in the country's economy increased.
1953: Figueres Ferrer again holds the presidency. New reforms
In 1953, as a result of the elections, H. Figueres Ferrer again took over as president of the country. He increased public construction costs, set a minimum of purchase prices for agricultural products, and also secured an agreement with the management of United Fruit Co., according to which the company began to contribute a third of the profits received in that country to the Costa Rican government.
In 1955, the Costa Rican armed forces, with the support of the Organization of American States, repelled a military invasion from Nicaragua of supporters of former President R. A. Calderón Guardia.
1948: Ferrer seizes power, abolishes the army, grants suffrage to women and blacks
The policies of R.A. Calderón Guardia and T. Picado caused dissatisfaction with the conservative forces of Costa Rican society. In the 1948 presidential election, the ruling bloc, which again nominated Calderón Guardia, was opposed by conservative leader O. Ulate y Blanco. Ulate i Blanco won, but the Legislative Assembly declared the election results invalid. The decision of the assembly destabilized the domestic political situation in the country. March 12, 1948 H. Figueres Ferrer, leader of the National Reformist Party of National Liberation (PNO; founded in 1945), raised an armed uprising and on May 8, 1948 seized power.
The interim government headed by him prepared a new Constitution of Costa Rica, which granted women suffrage, reduced the age limit to 18 years, abolished the country's armed forces (using funds spent on their maintenance, on the development of public education), etc.
After the adoption of the Constitution (November 7, 1949) and the confirmation of Ulate i Blanco as president, Figueres Ferrer resigned as head of the interim government.
1941: Declaration of war between Germany, Italy and Japan
Main article: World War II
In December 1941, Costa Rica declared war on Germany, Italy and Japan.
In 1941, the Costa Rican Chamber of Social Insurance was created, in 1943 the Labor Code was adopted, and a chapter on social guarantees was included in the constitution of the country. The implementation of the reforms begun by Calderon Guardia was continued by the government of T. Picado (1944-1948 years).
1940: Guardia elected President
In 1940, the leader of the National Republican Party, R. A. Calderon Guardia, was elected president of the country, who enjoyed wide support from the People's Vanguard party and Catholic organizations.
1931: Establishment of the Communist Party
In the 1920s, the first communist groups formed, in 1931 the Communist Party was created (since 1943 the People's Vanguard Party).
1917: Coup and overthrow of President Flores
President Alfredo González Flores, who replaced Oreamuno in 1914, initiated a tax reform that provided for increased taxation of banana and oil companies.
In 1917, as a result of a coup, he was overthrown, conservative H. Tinoco Granados came to power, but already in 1919 he was forced to resign.
1910-1914: Reforms of President Oreamuno
During the reign of President Ricardo Jimenez Oreamuno (1910-1914), an increased inheritance tax was introduced (the funds received from him were used to develop public education), the army was reduced to 1 thousand people.
1904
1901: National Republican Party founded
At the beginning of the 20th century, new political parties and organizations appeared. In 1901, the National Republican Party was founded, expressing the interests of a large bourgeoisie, coffee planters and a significant part of the national intelligentsia.
1900: United Fruit owns 10% of the country and has a monopoly on banana exports
Foreign capital, primarily North American, began to actively penetrate the country's economy.
By the beginning of the 20th century, United Fruit Co. owned about 10% of the country; she turned into the largest owner of railways and a monopoly exporter of bananas.
1888
In the last third of the 19th century, several railway lines were built connecting the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of the country, as well as the capital with ports.
1859: Coffee and banana export boom
In the late 1850s, the rapid recovery of the Costa Rican economy began. The production and export of coffee and bananas increased significantly.
1856-1860: Opposition to the invasion of the army of US citizen W. Walker
In 1856-1860, Costa Rica, along with other states in the region, opposed attempts by filibusters under the leadership of American citizen W. Walker to subjugate Central America.
1838: Costa Rica withdraws from the United Provinces of Central America
In 1838, Costa Rica withdrew from the United Provinces of Central America. On August 30, 1848, the Congress of Costa Rica adopted a declaration on the sovereignty and independence of the Republic of Costa Rica; the flag and anthem of the state were approved.
1825: First Constitution
In the 1820s, a liberal and conservative political grouping formed in Costa Rica. The almost complete absence of large land ownership, the homogeneous composition of the colony's population determined the evolutionary path of development of Costa Rican society. In the 1820-1830s, the Government of Costa Rica, represented mainly by liberals, carried out a number of progressive changes. During the reign of Governor H. Mora Fernandez (1824-1833), the first constitution of Costa Rica was adopted (1825), the public education system was improved, and road construction began. Governor B. Carrillo (1835-1842) distributed free land in order to stimulate coffee cultivation.
1821: Captaincy General of Guatemala declares independence from Spain
During the War of Independence in Latin America in September 1821, the independence of the Captaincy General of Guatemala from Spain was proclaimed. In 1822, Costa Rica became part of the Mexican Empire of A. de Iturbide, in 1823 - the United Provinces of Central America (retained its own government and internal autonomy). In the same year, the capital of Costa Rica became the city of San Jose.
1573: Spaniards complete the conquest of Costa Rica, destroying the entire local population
In 1562, H.V. de Coronado became governor of Costa Rica, he subjugated the central regions and founded the city of Cartago, which became the capital of Costa Rica. By 1573, the territory of Costa Rica was finally conquered by the Spaniards, who destroyed almost the entire local population.
Costa Rica's economy grew slowly, with the exception of the short-term cocoa boom of the second half of the 16th century. agriculture Small peasant farms of Creoles prevailed in; traditional Indian crops were cultivated - corn, beans, tomatoes, pumpkin, cotton.
In the XVII century, the plantation economy received some development.
1560: Costa Rica included in the Captaincy General of Guatemala of the Spanish Empire
In 1560, Costa Rica was included in the Captaincy General of Guatemala.
1502: Arrival of the expedition of H. Kolumba
On September 18, 1502, an expedition of H. Columbus landed on the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. The open lands were named Nuevo Cartago (New Carthage). The country received its modern name Costa Rica (translated from Spanish - rich coast) in the middle of the 16th century.
The conquest of Costa Rica by the Spaniards, begun in 1513, met with stubborn resistance from the Indians.
XV century: Principalities of the Ouetars
The autochthonous population of the central part of modern Costa Rica in the 15th century was the Oetars. They are also mentioned under the names güetares and pacacuas.
The Ouetars were the most organized and powerful force in this territory until the arrival of the Spanish colonialists.
Spanish chronicles mentioned many settlements and cacique (leaders) who ruled them, including:
- Garabito Empire (in the basins of the Tarcoles and Viria rivers, as well as in the central mountain range)
- Principality of Pakaka (territory of the canton of Mora)
- Principality of El Guarco in the modern Guarco Valley of the province of Cartago to the Caribbean coast and to Chirripo - the highest mountain in Costa Rica.
Neolithic: 4000-1000 BC: Borrowing agricultural crops from the north and south. First ceramics
The geographical location of the territory of modern Costa Rica between 4000 and 1000 BC helped the locals of the Caribbean coast gain knowledge of growing root crops, such as yucca and sweet potatoes, characteristic of South America.
The influence of crops from the territories of modern Mexico includes the spread of corn and beans cultivation in the central valley and on the Costa Rican coast of the Pacific Ocean.
The earliest pottery discovered in Costa Rica dates back to 2000 BC. The most characteristic subject was tecomate - a large bowl with a narrow neck for storing food.
Paleolith
8,000-4,000 BC: Places of longer parking, first experiments in farming and taming animals
Settlements with a larger than previously number of inhabitants date from the period of 8-4 thousand years BC. Meanwhile, gathering and hunting are gradually supplemented by the first experiments with plant cultivation and animal breeding.
12,000-8,000 BC: The first settlers prey on mastodons and giant lazy men
12,000-8,000 B.C. hunters and gatherers first appear on the territory of modern Costa Rica. Probably, such representatives of the ancient fauna as mastodons, giant sloths and local camels died at their hands.
Probably, giant sloths were easy prey for the first people who settled their habitat, since, like their modern relatives, they moved very slowly.
The American mastodont as a species was formed much later than the giant sloth, but earlier than the woolly and Colombian mammoths - about 3.7 million years ago.
He survived the Colombian mammoth and died out along with the woolly mammoth about 9-8 thousand years ago, that is, actually living to the Holocene.
See also
Notes
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