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2024
Egyptian President al-Sisi received the director of the SVR of the Russian Federation Sergei Naryshkin
Egyptian President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi received on April 17, 2024, Director of the Foreign Intelligence Service of the RFUergey Naryshkin.
The meeting discussed the international situation in the region, issues of combating terrorism and the development of events in Ukraine and Afghanistan, said Egyptian presidential spokesman Ahmad Fahmi.
Muslim Brotherhood Islamist leaders sentenced to death
Eight people were sentenced to death in March 2024. This is the leadership of the Islamist political movement Muslim Brotherhood:
- Muhammad Badiye is the supreme leader of the Muslim Brotherhood in 2010-2013.
- Muhammad Ezzat has been the supreme leader of the Muslim Brotherhood since 2013.
- Muhammad al-Baltagi - Secretary General of the Islamist "Party of Freedom and Justice," ex-deputy of parliament.
- Amr Muhammed al-Zaki is a former MP from the same party.
- Osama Abd al-Wahhab is a former minister from the same party under the Islamist government in 2011-2013.
- Safuat Hejazi is a preacher from the Muslim Brotherhood pool.
- Asem Abd al-Majid is one of the leaders of the party.
- Muhammad Abd al-Maqsood Muhammad is one of the leaders of the party.
Another 37 people were sentenced to life imprisonment, 6 people to 15 years in prison and 7 people to 10 years in prison. 21 defendants were acquitted and released.
The trial concerned the events of July 27, 2013, when 95 protesters were killed during clashes between security officials and supporters of the Muslim Brotherhood in the square in eastern Cairo. Human rights activists, Islamists and other opposition groups blamed the military for this, and the authorities themselves hung everything on the Islamists themselves.
After normalizing Egypt's relations with Turkey and Qatar, which supported the Muslim Brotherhood, the military in Cairo wants to put an end to and complete the defeat of the Islamists, fearing their return amid growing discontent among people over economic problems and radical sentiments over the war in neighboring Palestine.
2020
2019: Amnesty International information attack
Accusations against Amnesty International were made in Egypt in 2019. The country's authorities accused NGOs of biased and publishing tendentious information. In particular, representatives of the organization published a message on Twitter, which said that "the capital of Egypt Cairo is closed" and that Egyptian security forces "established checkpoints throughout the city and blocked all roads leading to Tahrir Square and closed four nearby metro stations, preventing people from exercising their rights to freedom of movement and peaceful assembly." In fact, this statement was based on the closure of several roads and four of the 53 metro stations in Greater Cairo due to maintenance on them.
It is worth noting that Amnesty International did not make similar comments to France, when dozens of metro stations and bus routes in Paris were closed weekly for a whole year due to yellow vest protests.
2018: Al-Sisi wins presidential election with 97% of popular vote
Al-Sisi won the 2018 presidential election with more than 97% of the vote (with a turnout of 40%), and faced only nominal opposition (pro-government candidate Musa Mustafa Musa) after several opposition figures were not allowed to participate (Sami Anan's military arrest, Ahmed Shafiq's threats against old corruption allegations and alleged sexual videos, and Khaled Ali and Mohamed Anwar El-Sadat's inadmissibility due to filing violations).
2011: After mass protests, Mubarak resigns and sentenced to imprisonment
In 2011, mass protests began in Egypt - people demanded the resignation of the president, the abolition of the emergency regime, an increase in the size of the minimum wage, an increase in living standards and other changes.
In February 2011, the president resigned.
After that, he was arrested on corruption charges and sentenced to prison. In 2017, Mubarak was released after six years in prison.
In February 2020, Hosni Mubarak died.
1981: Anwar Sadat killed, Hosni Mubarak becomes president
Hosni Mubarak became president of Egypt in 1981, after the country's previous leader was killed during a military parade.
After taking office, Mubarak introduced a state of emergency in the country, began the fight against corruption, and also softened the conditions for the activities of opposition parties.
1978
1957
1956: The Suez Crisis and the Tripartite Aggression of Britain, France and Israel
The Suez Crisis (Triple Aggression, Suez War, Sinai War, Second Arab-Israeli War, Operation Kadesh) is an international conflict that took place from October 1956 to March 1957, caused by Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal.
Conflict outcome:
- Political victory Egypt and maintaining Egyptian control of the Suez Canal.
- Military victory for Britain and France.
- The withdrawal of Anglo-French troops due to diplomatic pressure from the USSR, the United States and the international community, but until March 1957 the Sinai Peninsula was under Israeli occupation.
- Resignation of British Prime Minister Anthony Eden and French Prime Minister Guy Mollet.
British occupation
1943
Main article: World War II
1938
1931
1930
1927
1924
1923
1922: Entrance to Pharaoh Tutankhamun's tomb discovered and cleared
1918
1915
1914
1909
British archeologist Howard Carter, starting work in the Valley of the Kings in 1917, knew that there was a tomb of Tutankhamun, wrote Victor Solkin. The reason for this was the finds of other archaeologists who confirmed that a memorial ceremony was held in the valley along the king. In 1909, archaeologist Edward Ayrton, near a cache of KV58, found this faience vessel with the inscription "god of the good Nebheprur, (to whom) life is given." It is with this subject that the new story of Tutankhamun begins, which led to the discovery of his tomb in 1922.
1897
1888
1882: Britain occupies Egypt to control Suez Canal
In 1882, in order to establish complete control over the Suez Canal, Britain directed the Egyptian uprising and attack on its possessions in Africa. As a result, the entire territory of Egypt was occupied by British troops.
1880
1877
1871
1865
Hundreds of years ago, the dried bodies of ancient Egyptians were believed to have healing effects. They were ground into powder and used as a medicine for various diseases. However, the cunning merchants quickly realized what was what, and began to pass off the dried remains of modern beggars as ancient mummies.
Later, another vicious practice appeared: ancient Egyptian mummies began to be sent to Germany and Britain, where the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt went to fertilizers. Mummies of animals were also used for this. In addition, the remains of poor Egyptians went to the production of mummy brown paint, and in the United States they were used in the paper industry. According to the writer Mark Twain, in Egypt itself, mummies were sometimes burned in steam engines.
In the 19th century, mummies could be found in Egypt from street vendors and, if desired, bought to decorate the house. Or for a thematic holiday - at that time in Europe, "mummy parties" were popular, when, to applause and endorsing the cries of guests, the hosts "spread" the mummies.
At some point, the mummies finally came to be considered valuable exhibits. Europeans and Americans began to actively acquire them for their private collections. If collectors did not have enough money for a whole mummy, on the black market they bought, for example, only one hand. Or a leg. Or head. Or another part of the body. Very quickly, demand overtook supply: mummies became rare, and the desire to get them in their collections grew. Then the sellers went to the old trick - they passed off the bodies of the poor or executed criminals dried in the sun as the remains of the ancient Egyptians.
Fake mummies are still occasionally found in museum collections.
1860
1850
1219: Famine after absence of Nile spill. Adults eat children
The life and well-being of the Egyptians previously depended entirely on the Nile spills. This dependence is reflected in a number of Egyptian texts of different times, which tell about the terrible disasters of mass hunger due to the absence of river spills. We find a reflection of such disasters in the Bible (Genesis 41.53-57). Finally, from the history of Arab medieval Egypt, it is also known about the terrible misfortunes that befell the country. One of the most terrible hungry years of that era is narrated by the Arab doctor and chronicler Abd el-Latif: "In 1219 AD (597 x.), The spill of the Nile did not take place, after which there was a terrible famine, accompanied by massive cannibalism: the victims of this horror were children who were eaten by adults, despite the most severe punishments for these crimes" [1].
642: Arab conquest of Egypt. Memphis' ultimate decline
The conquest of Egypt by Arab forces in 642, as well as the founding of al-Fustat and later al-Qahira (modern Cairo), led to Memphis finally falling into decay. The new capital was founded only two dozen kilometers north of Memphis and took over all its main functions.
The Arab writer KhІІ v. Abd-el-Latif in an essay dedicated to Egypt, argued that the ruins of Memphis were grandiose and stretched from Dashur to Giza.
The ruins of the temple of the god Ptah, the colossal statue of Pharaoh Ramesses II, carved from pink granite, and the figure of the sphinx are all that remained by the beginning of the 21st century from Memphis, which was once one of the largest and most significant cities in the world.
For the Memphis necropolis, see History of Ancient Egypt
600: Coptic dominates
Greco-Roman period
The Greco-Roman period in Egypt began with the conquest of the country by Alexander the Great in 332 BC and ended with the division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD.
150: Cemetery of sacred ibis, falcons, shrews and ichneumons in Abydos
One of the most revered animals in Egypt was the ibis bird (there are about thirty of its species on the globe). Sacred in Egypt was considered a white ibis with black-painted ends of flight feathers.
Ibis was revered as the embodiment of the god of wisdom and knowledge Thoth, whose cult center was Hermopol - Middle Egypt. The murder of the ibis, according to Herodotus (І, 65), was punishable by death, as well as the murder of a falcon (or hawk). In 1913, during excavations in Abydos, a cemetery of sacred ibis was opened, dating from the middle of the ІІ century AD. Together with the burials of ibis, burials of falcons, shrews and ichneumons (Egyptian mongooses), also considered sacred, were discovered. The mummies of the deceased animals were done very carefully.
100
20 BC
A granite portrait found in Karnak near Thebes, undoubtedly of local work, depicts, as suggested, Octavian Augustus after the battle of Cape Actium, held on September 2, 31 BC. e.) during the civil war between Octavian Augustus and Mark Anthony.
The sculpture is executed in the spirit of late Egyptian portrait plastic of the Saisi period (664-525 BC). The traditions of art of the Saisi era could be long held in the south of the country, far from the impact of the wave of Hellenistic Alexandria.
The solution of this portrait is completely different from the Roman images of the emperor. Here is the winner, whom the sculptor showed in the guise of the new ruler of his country, depicting on his head not the crown of the Egyptian pharaohs, but only nemes (a handkerchief made of fabric) and a small, barely noticeable uraeus (a symbol of supreme power). An element of the compromise was the preservation of the Roman hairstyle. Thus, the artist introduced Octavian not as the heir to the great Egyptian kings, but rather as the successor of the Ptolemy dynasty alien to the Egyptians.
Octavian restored the position of the highest priest of the god Ptah and the cult of veneration of the pharaoh in Memphis. Since the sculpture was discovered in Karnak, probably the cult of veneration of the emperor pharaoh was maintained there.
24 BC: Strabo describes the veneration of the crocodile at the temple of the city of Arsinoe
It is interesting to cite the story of the geographer Strabo (64/63 - 23/26 BC) about his visit to the city of Arsinoe and the temple of Sebek (in Greek. Sukhosa): "The city was formerly called Crocodilopol. The fact is that in this nome the veneration of the crocodile is very developed; they have one such sacred animal, the contents separately in the lake and tamed by priests. It is called Sukhom. The animal is fed bread, meat and wine; this food is always brought with it by strangers who come to contemplate the sacred animal. Our master, one of the officials who consecrated us there in the mystery, came with us to the lake, seizing some tortilla, fried meat and a jug of wine mixed with honey from lunch. We found the crocodile lying on the shore of the lake. When the priests approached the animal, one of them opened its mouth, and the other pushed a tortilla there, then meat, and then poured in the honey mixture. Then the animal jumped into the lake and swam across to the other side. But when another stranger approached, also carrying with him an offering from the beginnings of the fruits, the priests took gifts from him; then they headed running around the lake and, finding a crocodile, similarly gave the animal the food brought "[2].
59 BC
Feline guilty of murder is punished with death
In Roman times, the murder of a cat in Egypt was considered as the most difficult crime. The culprit was waiting for death. Diodorus, who visited the country around 40 BC (І, 83), relates the following: "One Roman man killed a cat, and a mob fled to the house of the culprit, but neither those sent by the king to persuade the authorities, nor the common fear instilled in Rome, could free a man from revenge, although he did this inadvertently." It is very interesting to note that back in the KhІKh century C.E. in Upper Egypt, the belief was widespread that the spirits of the genie were introduced into cats.
Son at deity temples as a method of treating disease
In ancient Egypt, sleep was seen as one of the treatments. This is told by Diodorus (І, 25). He claims that the goddess Isis was considered by the Egyptians to be the inventor of many healing remedies, but the most important of them was sleep. The goddess was sick in a dream, sometimes hopeless, and cured them miraculously. The message of Diodorus is incomplete: the Egyptians held the same opinion in relation to a number of other deities.
Healing sleep was not something random, unexpected; it was a dream in which patients were deliberately immersed, sometimes with the help of someone and not somewhere, but in specially designated places at the temples of various deities. Such places were:
- chapels in honor of the deified Amenhotep, son of Hapu,
- sanatorium near the Hathor temple in Dendera,
- Memphis Serapeum,
- Kanop Serapeum (modern Abu Cyrus, east of Alexandria),
- the prayer of the god Besa in Abydos,
- finally, in the city of Antinoe, founded during the Roman rule by decree of Emperor Hadrian. Antinoy, a favorite of Hadrian, drowned in the Nile in 130 AD. The emperor not only founded the city in honor of Antinous, but also created a widespread cult of Antinous, including in Rome. On Mount Mont Pincio in Rome there is an obelisk (the so-called obelisk of Barberini), hieroglyphic texts on it are dedicated to Antinus. They say that Antina also heals the Egyptians who turn to him, sending them a dream. Healing sleep at temples, as indicated by A. Volten, is a phenomenon very close to ancient Greek practice.
Ptolemaeus
129 BC.
200 BC: Ptolemaic and Nabatean Empire in the Sinai Peninsula
250 g BC.
305 BC: Ptolemy I and statues of Greek poets and philosophers at Serapeum
During the time of Ptolemy I (305-285 BC), statues of the most famous Greek philosophers and poets were placed in a semicircle shape east of the entrance to the Serapeum, at the end of the Sphinx Alley.
In December 1850, a year before the opening of the Serapeum, Auguste Mariette discovered a group of statues, which included a statue of Pindar, the most famous poet of Ancient Greece, depicted sitting on a seat covered with leopard skin. This discovery was followed by the discovery of ten more statues, including Plato, Protagoras, Aristotle (most likely) and Homer.
Mastaba Tee is on the right and Ptahotep's mastaba is on the left. Reconstruction of Jean-Claude Golvin]]
The idea of an invisible god settling into his images in temples
To the question of how, in the understanding of the Egyptians, the deity referred to the image of the deity, one can find a quite distinct answer in Egyptian texts (mainly Greco-Roman time). Many of them report: such and such a god went down to his temple and reunited with his sculptural image. Therefore, it is not the image - visible, material - that is the deity, but the invisible, intangible, that is introduced into it.
So, pushed away from the unity of the deity and his image, Egyptian theological thought came to their separation, which was observed over many centuries. This led to very serious consequences: there was an idea of the omnipresence of an invisible god visiting temples built in his honor in various parts of the country and entering his sculptural images.
The idea of the invisible god was accompanied by the idea of its anthropomorphic (or zoomorphic) appearance, which was decisive for the forms of [3].
326 BC: As part of the empire of Alexander the Great
455 BC: The rise of the animal cult due to the rise of nomadic separatism
The history of religions suggests that during the socio-economic development of society, as the transition from the pre-class structure to the class structure, totemism gradually died off. This quite natural phenomenon is explained by the evolution of religious ideology in connection with the socio-economic progress of society. In Egypt, we observe the opposite phenomenon: totemism not only does not die off, but, on the contrary, rises to the highest level, turns into a genuine cult of animals, which, in turn, develops and grows stronger, reaching full prosperity in Greco-Roman times.
Why did this happen?
In Egyptian religion, two na-reigns interacted: the older - folk religious views, among which totemistic ideas played the main role, and later - the ideology of the ruling class, which served mainly the interests of uniting the country and certainly had a greater power of influence.
The creation of complex theological systems, the development of rituals of the cult of individual deities, etc., contributed to the transformation of local totemistic views: totems began to be deified, their cult was created. So, naturally and imperceptibly, totemism has grown into an animal cult. The proof can be the cult of Apis already under the І dynasty (see History of Ancient Egypt).
The cult of animals, like the totemism from which it grew, was largely a religious expression of nomadic separatism, the survivability of which (it existed throughout the history of Egypt) was rooted in the conditions of a specific socio-economic existence. The central power of the pharaoh during its heyday for a long time suppressed nomadic separatism, but could not eradicate. At moments of weakening central power, he flared up with renewed vigor.
In the course of historical development, especially after the fall of the New Kingdom, the country increasingly plunged into the chaos of decentralization. In parallel, the cult of animals was strengthened and expanded as a religious manifestation of centrifugal tendencies. With special force he blossomed in the Greco-Roman time, when the unification of the country was no longer provided by the Egyptian central power, but by the military force of foreign rulers - Lagids and Rome, when there was no longer a more centralizing trend supported by the Egyptian ruling [4].
The memorial inscription of one of the priests of Ptolemaic time says: "I fed living ibis, falcons, cats, jackals and buried them according to ritual." This is regarded as a merit. Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century. BC e., writes (ІІ, 65): "Although Egypt borders Libya, it is not particularly rich in animals; but all the animals in it are revered sacred there, and some breeds are kept with people, and others are separate from them. Egyptians treat animals like this: special male or female guardians have been appointed to care for each breed of animals. "
It is significant that in Greco-Roman time (and even earlier) they buried not some single animal that was worshipped, but all animals of the species deified in the area.
Even by the time of the KhKhІІ (Libyan) dynasty, the beginning of the heyday of the cult of the goddess of the city of Bubast - Bastet dates back. She was personified by a cat. From Herodotus (ІІ, 66-67) we learn that the death of a cat in any house was marked by a special mourning of all residents for it. Dead cats are transported to sacred premises, embalmed and buried in Bubast.
Later, Diodorus (1, 83) characterizes the cult of animals in Egypt as a nationwide phenomenon. Strabo says the same (XVII, 812, 38-40).
Ancient Egypt: Thirty Pharaonic Dynasties
Main article: History of Ancient Egypt
Pre-dynastic Egypt: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic
Main article: Dodinastic Egypt
See also
Notes
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