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2022: Wave of parcels with bombs to organizations supporting the supply of weapons to Ukraine
At the end of November 2022, a series of messages took place in Spain about parcels with explosive devices that arrived at various institutions of the country by internal mail. Their detonation occurs when the recipient tries to open them.
On November 30, an explosion thundered at the embassy Ukraine in. Madrid According to the bomb MEDIA, was in an envelope addressed to Ambassador Sergei Pogoreltsev. One employee of the representative office was injured, nothing threatens his life.
On the same day, Instalaza weapons company in Zaragoza received a similar cargo with an improvised explosive device. The company produces hand-held anti-tank grenade launchers C-90, which Spain supplies for the Armed Forces of Ukraine.
Another bomb in the package was discovered on December 1 at the Air Force base in Torrejon de Ardos. From the territory of this military facility there were supplies of Western-made weapons for Ukraine.
A little later it became known that parcels with explosive devices arrived at the Spanish Ministry of Defense and at the address of Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez. However, sources of El Mundo claim that the episode allegedly occurred on November 24.
At the moment, Spanish law enforcement agencies claim that the cases of sending bombs to the Ukrainian embassy, the Air Force base and the Ministry of Defense are connected.
Judging by the geography of the incidents, all institutions that appear in reports of parcels with explosive devices are to one degree or another involved in the supply of weapons and military equipment to Ukraine.
2020: The first Spanish satellite worth 200 million euros disappeared 8 minutes after launch
In December 2020, the Spanish satellite SEOSAT-Ingenio, the largest space project launched by the national industry, was lost shortly after its launch, apparently due to the failure of the Vega VV17 rocket, which was supposed to put it into orbit.
Eight minutes after the launch, the rocket, jointly developed by the Italian Space Agency and the European Space Agency (ESA), deviated from its trajectory for as yet unknown reasons.
1989: The worst nuclear power plant accident in Western Europe
Main article: Vandellós NPP
On October 19, 1989, the Vandellos Nuclear Power Plant was operating at 100 percent capacity, generating 400 megawatts per hour steadily when an alarm sounded alerting it to severe vibration in one of the main turbines.
The alarm spread to other nuclear systems as the turbine fire caused an explosion. It was the worst nuclear accident at a nuclear power plant in Western Europe. Radiation leakage was virtually avoided by a miracle. Read more here.
1986
The small triangular bustier is spring-loaded, so it seems to magically hold onto the figure.
The author of the minikini was designer Rudy Gernreich, who presented his creation in 1964. A feature of this swimsuit was that it left the breasts completely open. Minikini is rightfully considered one of the symbols of the sexual revolution.
Unfortunately, they quickly lost interest in the new product, and the minikini went down in history. To date, there are not many photographs of girls dressed in those original minikini.
For 2022, the minikini is becoming more and more popular, but the modern version of the minikini looks much more modest - the chest remains closed.
1968
1960
1955
1943
Spanish aviators fight for the USSR
Naviego researcher Rafael de Madariaga, a native of Navarre, retired air captain, pilot, journalism graduate and passionate lover of the history of military aviation, explored the history of Spanish air aces fighting against the Nazis. They formed a group totaling about a hundred airmen, whose history is almost unknown. Madariaga collected dozens of their biographies in his work 'Los aviadores españoles en la URSS' (Spanish Aviators in the USSR), published by Galland Books.
Joining the Red Army was not easy for Spanish aviators. Many had to spend a year at the front, like ordinary soldiers, 'to prove their Soviet faith', and their military rank was not always retained by them. 'They were usually lowered by one rank,' the researcher stresses. The mass entry of these republican pilots into the Soviet Army occurred in 1943, and although they tried, they were not allowed to join the same regiment. Nevertheless, their work at the helm of the most modern Soviet aircraft was impeccable. 'The Russians worked at full capacity to create aircraft capable of countering the German: the MiG-1, which became the MiG-3, a series of aircraft by Yakolev, Lavochkin, Gorbunov, Gudkov and others,' says Madariaga.
Of the ninety-five airmen recounted in Madariag's book, fifteen were shot down in battle or killed in accidents while operating Soviet vehicles. Some of them were shot down almost immediately and did not affect the course of the battles, and their biographies boil down to several lines. Others, however, became real heroes, as in the case of José María Pascual Santamaria, who died in the bloody Battle of Stalingrad. 'Defending the city from German bombers, he managed to shoot down nine planes in one day. On August 28, he was shot down and died, "says Rafael de Madariaga. Pilots such as José María Bravo, who until his death in 2009, was the highest-scoring Spanish air aviator in terms of planes shot down, or Juan Lario, 'the Spaniard who probably shot down the most Germans on Russian soil'. Francisco Merogno, Antonio Garcia Cano and Antonio Arias are other Republican aviation aces who served in the ranks of the Red Air Fleet.
Among the Spanish pilots who fought for the USSR, the Asturian from Ballota shone - Celestino Martinez Fierros. March 1945. Near Lake Balaton, Hungary. The German Wehrmacht is launching Operation Spring Awakening in a desperate attempt to stop the advance of Soviet troops who have already surrounded the city of Berlin in the dying throes of the Nazi regime. On one of the calls, when our attack aircraft again attacked the enemy, an enemy shell hit the IL-2, piloted by Selestivo Martinez, who was barely 30 years old. The plane caught fire. The front line was far behind, and there was no hope to reach there. Martinez tried to lift the plane higher to find a better way out, but this proved impossible: the altitude was too low. The plane was thrown from side to side, its extended nose falling lower and lower. The pilot pressed the trigger lever, and two long tongues of flame escaped from under the planes of the aircraft. Stretching forward, they instantly blazed in the thick of the enemy's cars. Fuel trucks exploded. Martinez rushed his latest attack, sending the plane into a cluster of cars. The Germans tried to jump out of them and escape, but they were instantly overtaken by machine gun queues. The Spanish communist Celestino Martinez did not leave the helm of his plane until the last moment... He is a Soviet hero for all time.
Martinez Fierros, according to the researcher, is the most prominent Asturian pilot from a group of Spanish aviators who took to the skies during World War II, participating in battles on the side of the USSR.
1941
The seeming peace between Germany and the Soviet Union, concluded in August 1939 by Foreign Ministers Joachim von Ribbentrop and Vyacheslav Molotov, collapsed on 22 June 1941 in Operation Barbarossa, with which Hitler began the conquest of the East. 'The surprise effect enabled the Germans to destroy eight hundred aircraft on the ground and four hundred more in the air and advance many kilometers towards Moscow. Many Spaniards volunteered in those early hours, 'says Rafael de Madariaga, who recalls the' incredible 'operation invented by the Soviets:' They sent a group of airmen, including some Spanish republicans, to a secret camp in the Urals to fly German planes there. The Soviet Union had two dozen such aircraft, mostly Messerschmitt Bf 108 ″ models. While things were going well at first, several major crashes ended the operation.
1939: Franco's troops win in civil war
About a hundred pilots of the losing republic find themselves in the USSR
The victory of Franco's troops in the Spanish Civil War in April 1939 led to the exodus through the Pyrenees of a significant part of the remnants of the army loyal to the republic. Dozens of airmen, war veterans after numerous battles with German and Italian fighters, followed this route in an attempt to avoid the horrors of repression. 'They were first interned in labor camps for Republicans in Sainte-Ciprien and Argeles, but were soon separated and transferred to Camp Gourse. Although they were generally not very politically active, they were sympathetic to communist ideas and many were looking for a way to the USSR, "says Rafael de Madariaga. The port of Le Havre in France was their flight route to the Soviet country.
The significance of Spanish airmen to the Russians was exceptional. 'Pilots who fought in the civil war on the Republican side had a unique feature: they fought against the Nationalists for more than two years, flying Soviet aircraft such as' Moskas' (I-16) or 'Chatos' (I-15); they were by far the most knowledgeable on the matter, 'the researcher stresses. Moreover, many of them were trained at the Soviet aviation school in Kirovabad (now Ganja, Azerbaijan), where the Republic sent them, due to the shortage of pilots after the Franco uprising.
The Red Army commanders treated the Spanish fighters wonderfully, who arrived in Moscow 'impoverished and broken'. 'They saw their potential and their value, and sent them to various places of rest, with lots of food, and new clothes,' Madariaga says. From the very beginning, they were integrated into society, distributing each aviator to the civilian specialty he had in Spain: to a university if he was a student, or to a factory if he worked as a machine operator. Despite deep knowledge of various subjects, the Spaniards were poorly versed in Russian and its study was strongly encouraged.
1938
1936: Outbreak of the Spanish Civil War
All except the USSR and Mexico refuse to help the Republicans
Historian Miguel Campos, in his 2022 essay, details how the Spanish government was forced to resort to the services of smugglers during the Civil War to fight rebels in a European hands-off policy.
Urgent appeal: "We were caught off guard by a dangerous military coup. I ask for help with weapons and airplanes. " José Giral, the newly appointed president of the Council of Ministers, sent this message to his French counterpart, socialist Leon Blum, on the night of July 18, 1936. The government of the republic requested 20 bombers, 1,000 rifles, a million rounds of ammunition and eight 75 mm cannons and ammunition for them. This first call for help was the beginning of a desperate search for weaponry at all costs to fight.
"That first year of the war was key, after which, due to the policy of non-interference, almost everything was lost to the Republic. This forced the republic to turn to the Soviet Union and the black market, where it was unable to purchase everything necessary and fell victim to many scams. Meanwhile, the rebels used supplies from Italy and Germany. "
"Today we are amazed that Paris did not help, but this must be viewed in an international context," writes Miguel Campos. France was also close to civil war due to ideological struggle and there were many internal contradictions in its government. Within two weeks, Blum had changed his favorable position to a hands-off position. From that moment, help was avoided, it was underground, "explains Campos. The reason for this turn was "fear of Nazi Germany, of a new humiliation, as in Sedan in 1870 [during the Franco-Prussian War]," "and the British put pressure on them because they did not want a new world war, they advocated appeasing Hitler." Clearly what they say to the French: if you cooperate with the Republic and Germany attack you for it, London it will not help you. "
"The first planes to arrive from France were disassembled and the instructions were in Lithuanian because they were originally intended for this country. They also did not have the necessary fuel, they had to buy it. "
Or the case with the purchase of civilian aircraft in Belgium. "On almost the same day, the rebels bought the same amount, but for half the price and took them out of the country. However, the planes of the Republic did not fly away, they remained in the hangar and were destroyed by the Nazis in 1940. "
Desperation even led the Republic to try to buy weapons from Nazi Germany. Hermann Goering, commander of the Luftwaffe, "knew that the gold reserve of the republic would be useful for his rearmament program and at the same time was convinced that Franco would win the war, so if he sent something to the Republicans, he could prolong the conflict without jeopardizing the victory of the rebels."
The country that did offer aid was Mexico. "There was a problem of remoteness, although Mexican President Lázaro Cárdenas allowed the Spanish ambassador to do what he wanted, and gave orders to his ambassador in Paris to purchase arms throughout Europe paid for by the Republic to send them to Spanish ports."
This was not enough to turn the tide of the war. "The republic only had to suffer," Campos says.
1918: Spanish flu epidemic
1855
1805: The death of the Spanish-French fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar with Britain and the actual submission of Spain to Napoleon
The result of the war with Britain was the death of the Spanish-French fleet in the Battle of Trafalgar on October 21, 1805 and the actual submission of Spain to Napoleon.
1804: Declaration of war on Britain under pressure from Napoleon
Under pressure from Napoleon, Spain declared war on Britain on December 4, 1804.
1792: Manuel Godoy, the Queen's lover, begins to rule the country
Manuel Godoy, the almighty minister of King Charles IV and the lover of his wife, actually ruled Spain from 1792 to 1808, with the exception of the period 1798-1801.
About Godoy's conflict with the best Spanish engineer who emigrated to Russia and rose there to the post of minister, see Betancourt Augustine Augustinovich.
1783: First balloon flight in Spain
The world's very first balloon was created and lifted into the air by aeronautical inventors the Montgolfier brothers in 1783.
On November 28, 1783, Augustine de Betancourt made his first balloon flight in Spain. The event took place on the outskirts of Madrid in the presence of the king.
1704: British and Dutch forces seize Gibraltar
Gibraltar is an overseas possession of Britain, which borders Spain to the north and has access to the Mediterranean Sea. British and Dutch forces captured the peninsula in 1704. London's legal right to own the territory is enshrined in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht (the treaty that ended the War of the Spanish Succession). At the same time, for 2022, Spain does not recognize the sovereignty of Britain over the peninsula.
1700
Main article: 1700
1618
1610: Witch Hunt
14th century
600g
As part of the Roman Empire
2nd century CE
90 AD: Map of Cadiz
82-72 BC: Sertorian War between Marians and Sullans
In 88 BC, a conflict broke out in Rome between Consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla and a party of Marians led by Quintus Sertorius. The parties competed for the right to lead the army in a campaign against Mithridates VI Yevpator.
Rome believed that the war against Mithridates would be quite easy, and the war in the rich provinces promised to extremely enrich the commander. It was also well known that Mithridates was very rich, and in the Greek cities that joined Mithridates there were a huge number of works of art that were already highly valued in Rome at the beginning of the 1st century.
Sulla had more rights to primacy, but the intrigues of his opponents forced him to seek command by capturing Rome. Extreme cruelty on both sides divided the Roman elite into two parties, which continued to fight each other during the Civil Wars and rebellions, including after the death of Sulla in 78 BC (the so-called war between the Marians and the Sullans (88-62 BC). One of the episodes of this conflict was the war of the Roman Senate against Sertorius, who became governor in Near Spain.
In 75 BC, Gnei Pompey, who commanded the Roman troops, crossed Iber, reached Valentia and here defeated the military leaders of Sertorius - Gerennius and Perperna. 10 thousand rebels died, including Herennius, and Valentia was taken and destroyed.
In 73, Sertorius was killed by conspirators. This caused a split in the camp of the rebels and weakened them, thanks to which Gnei Pompey easily won the decisive battle.
Spain at the beginning of the 1st century BC. e.
Most of the Iberian Peninsula by the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. was part of the Roman state. During almost continuous wars, by 133, the possessions of Rome expanded significantly due to the regions in the center and west of the country, but at the same time many lands were subordinate to the Roman governors only nominally. Researchers distinguish three territorial zones by the degree of penetration of the conquerors.
On the Mediterranean coast, on the middle reaches of the Ibera and south of the Ana River, the positions of the Romans were strongest: most of the local communities were in the position of subjects, paid tribute, did not have their own weapons and maintained Roman garrisons.
The inhabitants of the central part of the peninsula were vassals of the Republic, also paid tribute and provided auxiliary troops.
Finally, there were still lands of Vettons and Vacceans in Celtiberia, territories west and north of Ana, which were subordinate to Rome only formally. Sometimes the governors took hostages from individual communities or resettled individual tribes from the mountains to the plains, but in general they tried to maintain the status quo.
Lusitania, which occupied the entire southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, was conquered by Decimus Junius Brutus in 138-137 BC. e., but this conquest became a simple formality. Later, the strong and numerous Lusitan people remained virtually independent of Rome. The vascones continued to resist in the far north, did not obey the Republic of Astura and Cantabra. The Romans had to regularly suppress the uprisings in the Near Celtiberia, repel the raids of the Lusitans, and wage a small war with the Vaccaeans.
Free Phoenician, Greek cities and Sagunt, who concluded a treaty with Rome
Communities in the territories directly subordinate to the governors occupied different positions. The greatest privileges were enjoyed by the cities that concluded a special agreement with Rome and were considered free; these included some Phoenician and Greek colonies (Emporion, Malaka, Ebes), the native city of Sagunt, as well as, possibly, several more communities. These cities enjoyed full self-government, did not pay taxes and were not required to maintain Roman garrisons. In the event of war, their responsibilities were limited to moral support. The Civitates stipendiariae had to pay taxes to Rome, and their lands were considered ager provincialis, but such communities had internal autonomy.
Finally, there was a category of deditisians: these were communities that, during the wars, surrendered to the mercy of the Romans and became simple subjects. They were in full provincial administration, and their position was not governed by any laws.
Cities with a Roman device and Italic colonists
In addition, cities with a Roman structure existed in Spain. First of all, these were cities founded by the governors: Tarracon, Italica, Grachuris. Perhaps Italica by the 80s BC. e. had the status of a Latin colony, and with it - Ilerda, Cartea, Corduba.
There were no Roman colonies in Spain in the late 80s BC. Nevertheless, there was an active colonization of the country by immigrants from Rome in particular and Italy as a whole: veterans who had served their term, impoverished peasants, representatives of the business community, who were attracted by the natural wealth of Spain, settled here.
At the beginning of the 1st century B.C.E., in a number of cities, the descendants of immigrants supplanted or completely assimilated the natives. At the same time, the bulk of the colonists were not the Romans themselves, but the Italians, originally from Campania, and secondly, possibly from Etruria.
Romanization of natives
In parallel, there was an introduction to the Roman-Italian culture of the natives. The Spanish absorbed the Latin language and Roman way of life while serving in the army of the Republic; some of them received Roman citizenship for their merits, but in the 80s BC. e. It was still rare.
The success of Romanization is evidenced by the fact that many cities minted coins with legends in Latin, began to take on a Roman appearance; Latin schools appear in them. Roman names were widely used.
In general, Romanization by the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. achieved great success in the basins of Ibera and Betis and much more modest in other regions. But researchers consider its main achievement to be the fact that the natives of Spain no longer saw their future outside the Roman state and sought to be like the Romans. It was this that made their active involvement in Roman civil wars possible.
129 BC.
197 BC: Formation of the provinces of Near and Far Spain
In 197 BC, two provinces were formed in Spain. Near Spain included the lower and middle reaches of the Iber River and the Mediterranean coast to New Carthage, which became the administrative center; Far Spain included Betica, and here the main city was Corduba.
209 BC: Following the Second Punic War, Rome receives the silver mines of Spain and becomes a superpower
In 218 BC, the Second Punic War began. In the early years of the war, luck accompanied Carthage. The commander Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees, and then through the Alps and invaded the Appenine Peninsula. In the following years, he won several serious victories, so that the Roman Republic was in a very difficult situation. But gradually the Romans began to take over. They conquered Sicily and acted very successfully on the Iberian Peninsula, by 209 capturing all the possessions of Carthage on the peninsula and, among other things, silver mines. Eventually the Romans landed in Africa and Hannibal was forced to return to Carthage to defend the city. But he lost the decisive battle. As a result, Carthage lost almost all of its possessions and was forced to burn its fleet. The Carthaginians pledged not to wage wars outside Africa, and to coordinate any military actions with Rome. In addition, they had to pay a huge indemnity - 10,000 silver talents (approximately 323 tons) over 50 years.
The defeat of the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War with ancient Rome led, among other things, to the loss of their possessions on the Iberian Peninsula and the nakhodivshikhsya of silver mines there. Geochemists from Germany and Denmark showed that even before the end of the war, the Romans began to mint money from Iberian silver, and not from Greek, as before. The influx of large amounts of silver was one of the reasons why Rome after the end of the war became the strongest state in the Mediterranean. The authors presented the results of a study in 2017 at the 27th Goldschmidt International Geochemical Conference in Paris[1] about the rise of [1].
The authors of the new work analyzed 55 Roman silver coins dated 225-101 BC. Using mass spectrometry and X-ray spectral microanalysis, they examined the isotope signature - the ratio of lead isotopes that were present in silver coins. Silver occurs not only as silver ore, but also in ores of other metals, for example in zinc-lead-silver or as an impurity in lead ore galenite. Therefore, lead was also present in silver coins. From the ratio of lead isotopes, the place of origin of the ore can be approximately determined.
It turned out that the earliest coins studied were made of silver mined in Greek Lavrion and in Rhodopes, which were located in Macedonia and Athens. By the end of the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic had not yet conquered these states (this happened several decades later), so Rome at that time did not have its own significant sources of silver. But after 209 BC, the Romans had their own silver from the mines on the Iberian Peninsula and began to mint coins from it. In the new money, the silver content reached 96 percent, which, according to researchers, indicates a constant influx of metal from former Carthaginian possessions.
 | "The massive influx of silver from the Iberian Peninsula changed the economy of the Roman Republic, allowing it to become a superpower of the time. We know this from the works of Libya, Polybius and other ancient authors. But our research provides a modern scientific proof of the rise of Rome. It shows that Hannibal's defeat and the rise of Rome were deducted on Roman coins, "says the lead author of the study, Dr. Katrin Westner from Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main. |  |
East of the country as part of Carthage
264 BC: Outbreak of the first Punic War: Expansion of the Carthaginians in the Iberian Peninsula
Punic wars between the Roman Republic and Carthage lasted more than a century, from 264 to 146 BC. By the beginning of the wars, Carthage was a maritime empire and owned almost the entire coast of North Africa to Egypt, the east coast of the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily.
In the First Punic War, the Romans captured Sicily (because of it, the conflict began), Corsica and Sardinia. In response, the Carthaginians expanded their possessions on the Iberian Peninsula, began to develop silver mines and created well-trained troops from the locals.
250 BC: Tinnit Es Culleram Sanctuary on the island of Eavis
330 BC: Ibushim - the export center for wine, oil, salt and ceramics - will mint its own coin
Gradually, the city of Ibushim on the island of Ivisa becomes not only a center for the redistribution of goods, but also a place of its own production. In 425-275 BC, it was directed to Mallorca, Menorca and the east of the Iberian Peninsula and was probably important for the supply of wine, oil and salt.
Ceramic production is also growing, characteristic forms of local ceramics and Punic tradition are distinguished, and utensils reproducing Greek forms are made.
Over time, traders from Ibisa created a network of trading outposts in the Balearic Islands, through which they also hired local slingers in the troops of Carthage.
Although Ibushim was associated with Carthage, it enjoyed full internal autonomy. In this city, starting from the second half of the 4th century BC, minting of its own coin appeared.
530 BC: Ivisa comes under the control of Carthage
In the 6th century BC, Carthage, a Phoenician port colony in North Africa, experienced significant commercial expansion in the central and western Mediterranean, resulting in the cultural, political and economic orbit of Carthage in 530-425 BC. The Carthaginians are also known as Punics.
There was an important emigration of groups of immigrants from Carthage who settled in Ibosima, which led to demographic growth as early as the first half of the 5th century BC and intensified in the middle of the same century.
It was at this time that the exchange between Punic Ivisa and the Tayot communities of Mallorca and Menorca became noticeable.
Phoenician colonies
600 BC: The foundation of the city of Ibushim - later Ibis
In 625-600 BC, the Phoenicians from the Strait of Gibraltar region founded the settlement of Ebushim on the site of the future city of Ivisa on the island of the same name.
The name Ebushim is associated with the name of the Egyptian god Bes, whose cult was also adopted by the Phoenicians ('Ybshm - the islands of the god Bes). Place names associated with the god Bes are also found on the neighboring island of Formentera.
The name Ibosim or Ibushim will eventually become Latin Ebusus and Catalan Avissa. Thus, Ibushim/Avissa is the oldest city in the Balearic Islands and one of the oldest cities in Europe.
For the Phoenicians, this island was a strategic point in the Mediterranean, between North Africa and the Iberian world, as well as between the south of the Iberian Peninsula and Sardinia. It was an excellent platform for trade with the entire east coast of the peninsula, with the Gulf of León, and with the islands of Mallorca and Menorca.
A typical model for Phoenicians throughout the Mediterranean was the placement of a residential area in a protected place on the peninsula or on an island near the coast. In this case, the first residential buildings appeared on the very top of the hill, which today bears the name Puig de Vila. The city of the dead was located only 500 meters from the settlement on the site, which today is called Puig de Molinas and was separated from residential buildings by a stream. Cremation at this time was the only type of burial.
654 BC: Beginning of settlement of the island of Ivis by the Phoenicians - Sa Kaleta
The ancient ruins of the Sa Kaleta Phoenicians were found in 1980 on the southern shore of the island of Ivisa. It was from here that in 654 BC, archaeologists suggest, the settlement of the island by the Phoenicians began.
The first settlers from Iberia chose this site for a reason, since from the north it was well protected by mountains, from the east by Cape Es Codols (Es Codols) and from the west by Cape Sa Caleta (Sa Caleta). This gave people good protection from winds and, accordingly, from strong waves. The proximity of the salt ponds of the Codolar (estanys des Codolar) provided an opportunity to extract sea salt for commercial purposes and trade. In addition, they were engaged in baking, fishing, metalworking and fabric making. Their port was located in Sa Kaleta Bay, where the fishing boats of the local population are now to this day.
Approximately 600 BC, ancient settlers left Sa Kaleta Bay and moved to the place where the capital of Ivis is today, establishing a city there. This happened for several reasons. The first of them is the need to build a defensive fortress from corsairs and militant rulers of other countries. The mountain upland of the old city of Eavis met all the necessary requirements for these purposes. The second is in the expansion of land for the development of agriculture and animal husbandry. The third is an increase in the harbor in view of favorable natural conditions for these purposes [2]].
The ruins of Sa Kaleta are the only evidence of colonization of ancient settlers from the coast of Iberia in past times. Therefore, the historical part of Sa Kalet is an important remaining fragment of the ancient era and was declared a World Heritage Site in 1999.
The ruins of the Phoenicians of Sa Caleta testify to simple buildings of stone and clay brick with flat roofs. The village consisted of small streets with an area and warehouses. It is assumed that the settlement was much larger, and the cape protruded about a hundred meters south into the sea. Over many centuries, erosion has done its job, the coastal part was destroyed together in the buildings and today most of the ancient village is under water.
A little north of the location of the ruins, fragments of several more ancient buildings of the Phoenicians were found. In 1937, during the civil war in, Spain with construction military defensive fortifications: sites for cannons, tunnels and buildings, they disappeared forever.
9th century BC: Beginning of Phoenician colonization
The oldest evidence of the existence of Phoenician colonies in North Africa, on the Iberian Peninsula and Sardinia dates back to the end of the 9th century BC. However, some researchers believe that the Phoenicians began expansion two centuries earlier. In the Old Testament, there is a mention that the fleet of the Tyre king Hiram (Tyre was one of the Phoenician city-states, and at one time even was the capital of the country) brought gold, silver and ivory to King Solomon. According to biblical chronology, this happened in the 10th century. The name Tarshish is also found in the Bible, which is associated with the ancient city of Tartess in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. According to Greek and Roman sources, the Phoenicians brought a lot of silver from there, but there is no archaeological evidence of an earlier expansion of the Phoenicians to the west of the Mediterranean[3] in the[3].
The ancient inhabitants of the Mediterranean smelted silver from lead ores. Silver deposits are not so common in nature, usually silver is part of the ores of other metals. In particular, it is contained in lead ores and, when smelting metal, lead impurities remain in it, therefore, the origin of silver can be determined by the ratio of lead isotopes in it.
To determine the expansion time of the Phoenicians, Israeli archaeologists led by Yigal Erel from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem analyzed the ratio of lead isotopes in three clades with Phoenician silver. All artifacts were found in northern Israel and dated to the X-9th century BC.
It turned out that the oldest silver, which dated back to the 10th century BC, was partially mined in the Taurus Mountains in southern Anatolia, partially on the island of Sardinia. Silver from the third treasure, dated to the 9th century, was mined on the Iberian Peninsula.
As the researchers conclude, the Phoenicians appeared in the Western Mediterranean in search of silver and began to contact the inhabitants of Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula even before colonization. And if in the II millennium the main flow of metal came from Anatolia and from the Balkans, then in the X century the situation begins to change. Nevertheless, most of the silver was still brought from Anatolia. It is possible that the Phoenicians borrowed metal smelting technologies there. But in the 9th century, they begin to mine silver on the Iberian Peninsula.
Neolithic
3200 BC: Major and prolonged military conflict in the Northwest Peninsula
The Late Neolithic burial of San Juan ante Latinam is located in northern Spain. It was accidentally opened in 1985, during roadworks. Rescue excavations took place until 1991.
As a result, the skeletal remains of at least 338 people were removed from a small cave. According to the skulls, there were more male and teenage males among those buried, but there were also the remains of women and young children, including babies. Together with them, they found 52 arrowheads, 64 knives, two polished stone axes, three pebbles (possibly throwing sling shells), five bone splines and some personal jewelry.
The burial was dated to the period 3380-3000 years BC. Mass graves are already characteristic of this time, but the common grave in San Juan ante Portam Latinam was not arranged in a completely familiar way. People were buried randomly: in atypical poses, sometimes with weaves, twisted. In addition, there was very little soil between the skeletons.
Such mass graves are also found in the early Neolithic, for example, in carriers of the linear-tape ceramic culture who lived in modern Germany. But the funeral customs of this culture in Spain are quite well studied, and it is known that its representatives buried their dead in single graves, both during corpse burning and during corpse placement. Therefore, anthropologists identified the general burial as the result of a massacre, a massacre.
The scientists who first examined the bones from the burial in San Juan Ante Portam Latinam came to the same conclusion: they considered that the victims of a major massacre were buried in the cave. Otherwise (for example, large-scale hostilities) seemed incredible.
According to previous studies, conflicts in the Neolithic era were short raids that lasted no more than a few days and included small groups of up to 20-30 people. It was assumed that the early societies did not have the material and technical capabilities to support longer and larger-scale hostilities. Anthropologists believed that the earliest such conflict in Europe occurred in the Bronze Age (approximately 2.8-4 thousand years ago).
Teresa Fernández-Crespo from the University of Valladolid (Spain) and her colleagues re-studied the skeletal remains of 338 people from the burial of San Juan Ante Portam Latinam for healed and unharmed injuries. The results of the study are published in the journal Scientific Reports in 2023.
Scientists found that 23.1 percent of people had skeletal damage, with 10.1 percent having unhealthy damage. This significantly exceeds the injury rates for that time (7-17 percent and two-five percent, respectively). They also found that 74.1 percent of those who did not heal and 70 percent of those who healed were male adolescents or adult men. Nothing like this has yet been seen in other European Neolithic places of mass loss of life.
The authors of the study noted that they have access to data only on those injuries that left a mark on the bones. If the blow occurred only on soft tissue, the person could die, but the cause of his death will remain unknown.
Researchers believe that a disproportionate number of injuries in men of different ages indicate a major military conflict. And a significant number of healed injuries indicate that the conflict lasted a long time (at least several months).
According to the authors of the work, the men were warriors, fought for several months and gradually everyone died. Apparently, then the winners killed women and children. Such a picture fits well with the siege of any settlement.
The fact that such scenarios for the Neolithic era have not previously occurred indicates one thing: previously, researchers did not pay attention to the number of wounds healed in skeletons from mass graves. The authors proposed to conduct repeated studies of other large burials.
The work showed that the level of complexity of societies in the Neolithic has so far been seriously underestimated, wrote Naked Science. Neither sieges nor just prolonged conflicts with hundreds of dead on one side alone are practically impossible without large and organized early state offices.
V thousand years BC: Megaliths
Paleolith
43 thousand hp: The last Neanderthals on the Iberian Peninsula
Main article: Neanderthals
Until the early 2010s, scientists believed that the Iberian Peninsula during the Würm glaciation was a refugium - a refuge where Neanderthals lived for several more millennia after Neanderthal populations died out in the rest of Europe (for example, in the Gorama cave on Gibraltar Rock or on the Ebro River, where a situation developed on the border of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic called the "Ebro border": on the north bank of the Ebro River there were Cro-Magnons, and on the south bank in the arid conditions of the Edaphic steppes - the last Neanderthals). However, according to later data, Neanderthals completely died out in Europe 39.26-41.03 thousand years ago, and in the Iberian Peninsula, Neanderthals died out no later than 43 thousand years ago.
A study published in the journal Nature in August 2014 found that Neanderthals disappeared in Europe between 41 and 39,000 years ago. This conclusion appeared as a result of the analysis of finds from the territory from the Black Sea region to the coast of the Atlantic Ocean. However, a new work published in February 2015 shows that Neanderthals disappeared earlier in the Iberian Peninsula, perhaps about 43,000 years ago. This is evidenced by the new dates received for the El Salt parking monument.
"Both conclusions do not contradict each other, but complement each other," said Bertila Galván, lead author of a new article published in the Journal of Human Evolution, a researcher at the University of La Laguna in Tenerife (Spain). She was also the author of a paper in August's Nature.
Until recently, archaeologists had no direct dates for the remains of Neanderthals from Spain. Now they are - in all cases, the remains have an age of at least 43 thousand and no more than 45 thousand years. The context allows you to narrow this date somewhat. The most recent remains are marked as questionable or accompanied by a small number of stone tools that could confirm bone attribution.
In an August study from Nature, the date of 40 thousand years ago was considered the "starting point," since after that time there is almost no evidence of the presence of Neanderthals in Europe. At the same time, the authors of the article admitted that the process of "extinction" of these "relatives" of man was complex and manifested itself in different ways in different parts of Europe.
In this context, the new work questions the presence of Neanderthals in the Iberian Peninsula later than 43,000 years ago. At the same time, the authors of the study provided information that testifies to the reliable archaeological context of the new dates. They are also confirmed by "reliable information" from other monuments in Spain.
Together with the new dates, the article also publishes the find of six teeth of the adult Homo neanderthalensis. Perhaps this is one of the last "Spanish" Neanderthals[4] of[5].
New high-precision methods of analysis, together with paleoecological and archaeological data, indicate a gradual extinction of Neanderthals. Most likely, the "extinction" was not sudden, but gradual, over several millennia, says Cristo Hernandez (Cristo Hern? ndez), co-author of the new paper and a researcher at the University of La Laguna.
The gradual disappearance of Neanderthals coincided with climate change: it became drier and colder. People of the modern species did not affect the disappearance of the "Spanish" Homo neanderthalensis - in the Iberian Peninsula they appeared after their "relatives" became extinct. The new dates indicate a chronological gap between the last Pyrenean Neanderthals and the first "Spanish" Homo sapiens. This gap is also confirmed by the layer of desolation that is not only in El Salta, but also on other monuments of Iberia.
Movies:
- Disappeared People (2016)
65 thousand hp: Neanderthals in Cueva de Ardales
Main article: Cueva de Ardales
430,000 ln: People from Sima de los Huesos cave could hibernate for winter
In January 2021, it became known that a group of researchers from Greece and Spain found evidence that 430 thousand years ago, people could hibernate for the winter.
The study is published in L'Anthropologie, briefly about it tells Science Alert.
When a bear wakes from hibernation (a type of energy-saving sleep often used synonymously with hibernation), its bones and muscles will be in the same condition as before. This is because bears have special metabolic processes that protect them during long-term sleep. However, sometimes this process does not go according to plan. For example, there are a number of diseases that lie in wait for animals after hibernation if they did not receive enough food before that.
The human body is not adapted to such a long sleep.
"People in hibernation may suffer from rickets, hyperparathyroidism and fibrotic ostitis if they do not have sufficient fat stores. All these diseases are an expression of renal osteodystrophy, characteristic of chronic kidney disease, "said paleoanthropologists Antonis Bartsiokas and Juan Luis Arsuaga in their[6] have[7].
Researchers believe that it is these signs that some human ancestors have, whose remains were discovered in a Spanish cave called Sima de los Huesos (Bone Gap).
In a deep mine in the Major cave in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain), many remains of hominins have been discovered, dating back about 430,000 years. At least some of them belong to the Heidelberg man - Homo heidelbergensis, an intermediate species in human evolution.
After examining the remains, the team found traces of intermittent growth in adolescents interrupted annually for a long time, as well as signs of vitamin D deficiency due to lack of exposure to sunlight. Scientists have suggested that these ancient hominins fell asleep during the colder season, and so their bones show traces of months spent without sufficient supplies of fat, a lack of vitamin D and strange seasonal spikes in growth.
"Thehibernation hypothesis is consistent with genetic evidence and the fact that hominins from Sima de los Huesos lived during the Ice Age," the researchers explained.
"The notion that humans may be in a hypometabolic state similar to hibernation may sound like science fiction, but the fact that hibernation is used by very primitive mammals and primates suggests that the genetic basis and physiology of such hypometabolism may persist in many mammalian species, including humans," they concluded.
The study is preliminary, however, and scientists will need much more information before confirming whether or not man's ancient ancestors actually hibernated, and how the human species eventually completely lost that ability.
500 thousand hp: The first people in the gallery complex in Atapuerk
The gallery complex in Atapuerque includes a 12-meter-deep funnel, a large gallery and a small pit known as the Covacha de los Sarpasos. The three holes are interconnected to form a system of caves.
A team led by Emiliano Aguirre began excavating the site in 1978 and six stratigraphic levels have been identified for 2019. The lowest level (GI) is over 780,000 years old, but the first hominids and large mammals could have accessed the pit no earlier than 500,000 years ago (GII). The mouth of the sinkhole acted as a natural trap, causing careless animals to fall deep into the pit.
Human groups (Homo heidelbergensis) and predators entered the cave through Covacha de los Sarpasos and used meat, skin and bones from trapped animals. The bears also used the site for hibernation, and traces of their claws can still be seen on the cave walls. About 180,000 years ago, sediments filled most of the cavity and made it impossible for hominids to enter the interior (GIG). Small predators were the last mammals to enter the cave to seek refuge.
1 million hp: The first Achelles in Europe in the parking lot of Barranca de la Boella
The site of Barranc de la Boella, Southern Spain (about 1 million hp). As of 2021, this is the oldest Acheulean site in Europe. In four almost simultaneous culture-containing layers, 326 stone artifacts were found.
1.4 million hp
Human facial bones in Cima del Elephante near Burgos
In September 2022, it was revealed that Spain the oldest human fossils ever found in were found in. To Europe Found near Burgos in northern Spain, the 1.4 million-year-old facial bones could eventually rewrite a person's background, according to archaeologists.
Archaeologists are celebrating a major "breakthrough" after the discovery of 1.4 million-year-old human fossils in the caves of the Sierra de Atapuerca excavation near Burgos, notably the Cima del Elefante.
The facial bones discovered in June are the oldest human fossils ever discovered on the European continent, and the landmark find could even change the background of humanity, according to scientists involved in the excavation.
"We do not yet know which first species of person the fragments found belonged to. But they represent a breakthrough that will help rewrite human history, "said archaeologist Aurora Martin, general coordinator of the Museum of Human Evolution in Burgos.
Child from Orsay
In Orsa (Granada), a child's tooth dated 1.4 million years old was discovered. Read more here (Fr.)
1.65 million hp: Man or horse from Orsay
"The Man from Orsay" is a fragment of a VM-0 skull found in Plio-Pleistocene deposits in the Venta Misena area (Orsay, Granada, Spain).
The antiquity of the find is 1.65 million years (paleomagnetic method). The fragment was described by a group of Spanish paleontologists led by X. Djibert in 1983 and defined as Homo sp. In the following decades, there was a heated discussion around the skull fragment, which could not give an unambiguous answer to the question of whether it belongs to the oldest person or horse found in Europe. Read more here
2.58 million hp: Pleistocene
Isolated Duero Basin connects to the Atlantic
In the Pleistocene, the isolated Duero water basin found an outlet into the Atlantic, and thanks to this the valley began to flow into the sea. Tributaries of the Duero, such as the Arlanson, played an important role in this drainage process, carrying sediments accumulated in the basin into the sea. This is how the Arlanson Valley emerged. This process created river terraces that show where the river flowed in the Pleistocene (2.588 million years ago and ended 11.7 thousand years ago), including in the area of the famous archaeological complex Sierra de Atapuerca.
5 million hp: The Sierra de Atapuerca Valley is covered with sediments of an isolated water basin
Alpine folding pushed calcareous formations of marine origin (see below) up, giving rise to the Sierra de Atapuerca mountain range. During this period, the Duero Valley was a landlocked sedimentary basin. Precipitation began to accumulate in the Sierra de Atapuerca area, and the valley was filled in 5 million years ago.
65 million hp: Formation of Sierra de Atapuerca limestone
More than 65 million years ago, the area of the Northern Plateau on which the Atapuerka archaeological complex later formed was part of the ancient sea connecting the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. The accumulation of calcium carbonate from shells and skeletons on the seabed began to form the Sierra de Atapuerca limestone. Cierra (Spanish sierra, literally "toothed saw," otherwise "mountain chain").
186 million hp: Mesozoic
Mesozoic, or Mesozoic era, is a geological era that lasted from 251 million years ago to 66 million years ago (only about 186 million years).
Giant turtles
A group of European paleontologists from the Autonomous University of Barcelona have discovered fragments of the shell in northern Spain, as well as some bones of one of the largest turtles in history. The length of the reptile, which received the name Leviathanochelys aenigmatica ("mysterious leviathan turtle"), reached 3.74 meters, and the mass - more than a ton.
Researchers claim it is the largest turtle in Europe during the Mesozoic era. Previously, scientists could not find the remains of large ancient turtles on the territory of the continent, at least more than one and a half meters long.
Notes
- ↑ 1,0 1,1 [https://nplus1.ru/news/2017/08/14/coins. Silver coins told
- ↑ [Source: https://tripguides.info/spain/balearic-islands/ibiza/sa-caleta-phoenician-settlement/ Ruins of Sa Kaleta
- ↑ 3,0 3,1 [https://nplus1.ru/news/2019/02/25/silver. The Phoenicians appeared
- ↑ [https://www.nkj.ru/news/25856/ "Spanish" Neanderthals disappeared before the arrival
- ↑ the Sapiens]
- ↑ [https://naukatv.ru/news/uchenye_predpolozhili_chto_pervobytnye_lyudi_mogli_vpadat_zimoj_v_spyachku new article. Scientists
- ↑ suggested that primitive people could hibernate in winter]
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