Main article: History of Egypt
Later Kingdom: XXVI-XXX Dynasties
From 747 to 332 BC, ancient Egypt made the last unsuccessful attempt to restore its former well-being, but faced a series of internal conflicts, the invasion of the Persians and, ultimately, was conquered by Alexander the Great.
358 BC: Nectaneb II is the last ruler of the XXX dynasty
455 BC.
Mysteries Conducted by Priests
For religious mysteries conducted by priests in temples, see the section on Edfu in the Aswan article.
Animal cult blossoms as nomadic separatism soars
The history of religions suggests that during the socio-economic development of society, as the transition from the pre-class structure to the class structure, totemism gradually died off. This quite natural phenomenon is explained by the evolution of religious ideology in connection with the socio-economic progress of society. In Egypt, we observe the opposite phenomenon: totemism not only does not die off, but, on the contrary, rises to the highest level, turns into a genuine cult of animals, which, in turn, develops and grows stronger, reaching full prosperity in Greco-Roman times.
Why did this happen?
In Egyptian religion, two directions interacted: the older - folk religious views, among which totemistic ideas played the main role, and later - the ideology of the ruling class, which served mainly the interests of uniting the country and certainly had a greater force of influence.
The creation of complex theological systems, the development of rituals of the cult of individual deities, etc., contributed to the transformation of local totemistic views: totems began to be deified, their cult was created. So, naturally and imperceptibly, totemism has grown into an animal cult. The proof can be the cult of Apis already under the І dynasty (see History of Ancient Egypt).
The cult of animals, like the totemism from which it grew, was largely a religious expression of nomadic separatism, the survivability of which (it existed throughout the history of Egypt) was rooted in the conditions of a specific socio-economic existence. The central power of the pharaoh during its heyday for a long time suppressed nomadic separatism, but could not eradicate. At moments of weakening central power, he flared up with renewed vigor.
In the course of historical development, especially after the fall of the New Kingdom, the country increasingly plunged into the chaos of decentralization. In parallel, the cult of animals was strengthened and expanded as a religious manifestation of centrifugal tendencies. With special force he blossomed in the Greco-Roman time, when the unification of the country was no longer provided by the Egyptian central power, but by the military force of the foreign rulers - Ptolemaic and Rome, when there was no longer a more centralizing trend supported by the Egyptian ruling [1].
The memorial inscription of one of the priests of Ptolemaic time says: "I fed living ibis, falcons, cats, jackals and buried them according to ritual." This is regarded as a merit. Herodotus, who visited Egypt in the 5th century. BC e., writes (ІІ, 65): "Although Egypt borders Libya, it is not particularly rich in animals; but all the animals in it are revered sacred there, and some breeds are kept with people, and others are separate from them. Egyptians treat animals like this: special male or female guardians have been appointed to care for each breed of animals. "
It is significant that in Greco-Roman time (and even earlier) they buried not some single animal that was worshipped, but all animals of the species deified in the area.
Even by the time of the KhKhІІ (Libyan) dynasty, the beginning of the heyday of the cult of the goddess of the city of Bubast - Bastet dates back. She was personified by a cat. From Herodotus (ІІ, 66-67) we learn that the death of a cat in any house was marked by a special mourning of all residents for it. Dead cats are transported to sacred premises, embalmed and buried in Bubast.
Later, Diodorus (1, 83) characterizes the cult of animals in Egypt as a nationwide phenomenon. Strabo says the same (XVII, 812, 38-40).
525 BC: The seizure of the country by the Persian king Cambyses
In 525 BC, Egypt was captured by the Persian king Cambyses.
Dwarf-shaped deities: Demons and Pateki
Herodotus reports (І, 37) that the Persian king Cambyses, who conquered Egypt in 525 BC. e., having visited the temple of the god Pt in Memphis, he mocked the idol of this deity, who resembled the Phoenician kabirs, who looked like dwarfs. In "kinship" with the great god Pt were some dwarf deities, which in science are called pathek; they were considered Pt's "children."
Pateki, like Bes, had protective functions protected from dangerous animals. The protective function was also characteristic of the Greek Kabirs of Phoenician origin, in Greece they were considered great gods. The fifth avatar of the god Vishnu in India is also the dwarf Vaman. Recall that the heroes of a number of Western European legends are dwarfs, ugly dwarf creatures, friendly to people.
As for Bes, he is not a separate deity, but the collective name of various dwarf deities that differ from each other, which, starting from the era of the New Kingdom, mix, merge with each other. The demon depicted with the knife was mostly called Aha, i.e. "fighter against danger and evil," the Demon dancing - Heath, or Hati.
Dwarf gods were often depicted with the goddess Hathor. There were various groups of Demons, consisting of countless individual gods. Besa's amulets were discovered during excavations far beyond Egypt, in particular in Russia.
For help, man turned to the Demons and the like, for the "great gods" were not always inclined to directly interfere in his everyday life.
The influence of Egyptian cosmogony on the first natural philosophers of Greece - Thales, Anaximen, Anaximander
In theogonies and cosmogonies, Iunu (Heliopolis), Memphis, Hermopolis, Thebes and Esne have common concepts. All of them proceed from the fact that before the creation of the world there was an eternal, primitive ocean, personified by the god Nun. The submission may have been linked to the annual Nile spills. The first piece of land that appeared from the primitive ocean in a particular city was considered exactly the piece on which this city stood. Herodotus (І, 4) conveys the story he heard that during the time of the first king of united Egypt, Menes, all of Egypt, with the exception of the Theban district, was a grandiose top. Here we are dealing with the reminiscence of Theban cosmogony.
From the depths of the primitive ocean of Nun, eternal water chaos, a demiurge appeared - in the form of sun and light. The demiurge arose by itself and created other gods and the whole world. Demiurgs in different centers are different. In Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes is Ra, Pta, Amon, in Hermopol is ogdoada.
The history of the universe in different cosmogonies is also different. In the cosmogony of Memphis, for example, we find a method of creation developed in detail through the creative word demiurge. Its influence has spread, to one degree or another, to all other cosmogonies.
The world created by the deity is constantly under threat of death, destruction by the forces of darkness and chaos. The God who created the world is constantly fighting for his being against those who seek to absorb the forces of chaos and darkness. The struggle for the existence of the world was thought of as something quite specific and material. Chaos, a primeval ocean outside the god-made world, seeks to destroy this world and even its creator - the sun (god Ra). Every time the sun hides behind the western horizon and plunges into the underworld, it encounters the forces of darkness and chaos and engages them in a bitter struggle in which it wins daily.
The creation of people, oddly enough, in cosmogonies is paid attention to a clearly insufficient one. People already exist at the very beginning of creation, that is, chronologically to the gods. In the view of the Egyptians, the process of creation of the world, in which the human race lives, is the first act of the deity. The organizer of these elements, the demiurge, himself is one of the elements of nature; it emerges from water chaos, the original ocean of Nun.
Here suggests a parallel with Greek natural philosophy. Thales from the city of Miletus (late VІІ - early VІ century. BC e.), the first of the natural philosophers, considered, for example, the beginning of all water. Thales's teaching of water as the beginning of all things echoes the Egyptians' idea of the primitive ocean of Nune. Plutarch (Isis and Osiris, 34) explicitly states that Thales borrowed his teachings from the Egyptians.
The Egyptians' idea of air (Shu - in the Heliopolian concept, Amon - in Theban) echoes to some extent with the teachings of the Miletan natural philosopher Anaximenes (VІ century BC. e.), who claimed that the air was the preelement of everything that existed.
Something common can be seen between the Egyptian idea of infinity, embodied in the deities Huch and Hauchet, and the doctrine of the Greek natural philosopher Anaximander (VІ century BC) about the infinite (apeiron), the properties of which remain unexplained.
However, Egyptian cosmogonic representations are clothed in a theogonic, mythological form, from which they are inseparable, and it would be extremely frivolous to see elements or rudiments of materialism in them. The Greeks certainly knew the basic provisions of Egyptian theogonies and cosmogonies. Greek-Egyptian relations in the field of spiritual (in the VІІ- VІ centuries. BC e.) undoubted. The Greeks did not copy the Egyptian views, but took from them what could be laid down as the basis of natural philosophical teachings. Of course, this suggested a higher level of thinking than religious-mythological.
625 BC.
664 BC: Rise of the XXVІ Dynasty from Sais
The twenty-sixth dynasty, also known as Saisi, after the city of Sais, in which the residence of the rulers was located, ruled from 664 to 525 BC. e.
The city of Sais, located somewhat south of Tel al-Faraun, just east of the Rosetta branch of the Nile, played a large role in the religious life of the country. It was the center of the cult of the ancient goddess Nate, considered a demiurge and supreme deity. It is already mentioned in the "Texts of the Pyramids." These days, there is virtually nothing left of Sais.
Third transitional period: XXI-XXV dynasties
From 1069 to 656 BC, Egypt lost its foreign territories and became the object of invasion by Libya, Nubia and Assyria.
XXV Kushit dynasty
The XXV dynasty is a family of pharaohs who came from the Kushit kingdom, located in the territory of modern northern Sudan and Upper Egypt. Most kings of this dynasty considered Napata their spiritual homeland. They ruled part or all of ancient Egypt for almost a century, from 744 to 656 BC. e.
700 BC: Monument to Memphis Theology on the Shabaki Stone
Main article: Shabaki Stone
Pharaoh Shabak, who ruled in the period around 705-690 BC. e., ordered to paint on stone a text that has been preserved as an important monument of Egyptian theology.
The ideas about the word as an instrument of the deity for creating the universe, set forth in the Shabaki Stone and in other ancient Egyptian sources, were later used by Greek philosophers in the concept of Logos and the authors of the Bible. The Gospel of John begins with the following words: "At the beginning there was a word, and the word was with god, and the word was with god. It was at the beginning of God. Everything through him began to be that it began to be. "
XXI dynasty: Division of the country into Thebaida and Lower Egypt. Amon-Ra declared lord and afterlife
With the decline of Egypt and its division into Thebaid, led by the high priests of Amun, and into Lower Egypt under the rule of the KhKhІ dynasty (this happened in the KhІ century BC), Amon's admirers continued to defend the authority of their great ancient god.
The high priests of Amun in Thebes gave Amon-Ra, the "king of the gods," chthonic functions: they declared him lord and the afterlife, completing the universalization of the god.
The priests were given the opportunity to issue decrees on behalf of Amun-Ra, which were intended to "deify" the deceased members of the royal family, that is, to provide them with life corresponding to their position in the afterlife. Similarly, ushebti figurines needed a special decree to be able to perform the work necessary in the afterlife. Thus, the Theban god acts here as the god of the dead instead of Osiris.
But as strong as the propaganda of some form of ideology or religion is, it is unsuccessful if this form does not correspond to the real state of affairs, and therefore is doomed to extinction. So it happened with the cult of Amon-Ra. Other Egyptian deities came to the fore, for in the course of history other nomes and cities rose, and the deities of these nomes and cities became rulers of the minds of believers.
New kingdom: XVIII-XX dynasties. Empire
Ramesses II
1230 BC: Saqqara List of Pharaohs
Ramesses II ordered the burial of Apisov at what is now known as the Serapeum in Saqqara
Ramesses II, who ruled around 1279-1213 BC. e., ordered the burial of the Apis in a place that is now known as the Serapeum, an underground complex of funeral chambers in Saqqara for sacred bulls. This place was used until the reign of Cleopatra.
Over a period of about 1400 years, from the New Kingdom era in Egypt to the end of the Ptolemaic era, at least sixty APIS were buried in the Serapeum. Separate tombs were built for the earliest burials. As the cult gained popularity, underground galleries were dug, connecting subsequent burial chambers. On the surface of the earth, shrines, workshops, residential and administrative premises were added to the main temple complex.
1290 BC: Confrontation with the Hittite kingdom
Horemheb
Khoremheb, which means "Choir rejoices," was the last pharaoh of the 18th dynasty of Egypt. He reigned for at least 14 years, from 1319 BC to 1292 BC. He had nothing to do with the preceding royal family other than his marriage to Mutnejmet, who is believed (though disputed) to have been the daughter of his predecessor, Aya; it is believed that he was of simple origin.
From the inscription of Pharaoh Horemheb, it is clear that prayer to the gods for the health and well-being of the king was practiced in temples on a daily basis.
Tutankhamun
1367: Akhenaten's coup - the first official proclamation of monotheism in world history
Main article: Akhenaten
Pharaoh Akhenaten reigned for 17 years (1367-1350 BC).
Amenhotep III
Amenhotep Veliky (father of Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten and grandfather of Tutankhamun) ruled Ancient Egypt from June 1386 BC. e. to 1349 BC. e. after the death of his father Thutmose IV. Amenhotep was the son of Thutmose from the secondary wife of Mutemvia.
His reign was marked by a period of exceptional prosperity and greatness, with Egypt reaching the peak of its artistic and international influence, making him one of the greatest pharaohs of ancient Egypt. He is also one of the few pharaohs worshipped as a deity during his lifetime.
The appearance of the term "pharaoh" is the one who lives in the "house of the great"
In addition to Egyptian texts, this term appears in the Bible as a modified form of the stable phrase of two Egyptian words "per-aa," which means "great house," which served, starting with the XVІІІ dynasty, to metaphorically refer to someone who lives in the "great house," i.e. in the palace. From BibliI "per-aa" penetrated into European languages.
Hunt killing of 102 lions in 10 years
The lion was considered the incarnation of the king, but this circumstance did not in the least prevent Amenhotep ІІІ, a great lover of hunting, from shooting a hundred and two [2] for ten years. [3].
1350 BC: The memorial church of Amenhotep III in Thebes and the "Petersburg" sphinxes
The memorial temple of Amenhotep III was built during the life of the pharaoh in Thebes (modern Luxor), on the western bank of the Nile.
The surviving figures of Amenhotep III (Colossus Memnon) were located in front of the first pylon.
In the southern part of the peristyle court behind the third pylon were sphinxes bought by Russia in 1832 (see St. Petersburg), and in the northern - sphinxes of the wife of Pharaoh Theye. For more details, see Luxor.
Beginning of burials of Apis bulls remains in Saqqara
During the New Kingdom era, the remains of the sacred Apis bulls were buried in a cemetery in Saqqara. The earliest known burial in Saqqara was during the reign of Amenhotep III by his son Thutmose; subsequently, seven more bulls were buried nearby.
1404 BC: Amarna Archive
The Amarna Archive is a collection of correspondence on clay tablets, mainly diplomatic, between the government of Ancient Egypt and its representatives in the Eastern Mediterranean (Canaan and Amurru), as well as the kings of other powerful powers of the region (Babylonia, Hatti, Mitanni, Assyria).
1413 BC: Thutmose IV clears the sand of a large sphinx and sets the Dreaming Stele between his paws
Thutmose IV was born to Amenhotep II and Tia, but was not crown prince and Amenhotep II's chosen successor to the throne. Some scholars suggest Thutmose overthrew his older brother to usurp power and then commissioned the creation of the Dream Stela to justify his unexpected reign.
Already in the time of Thutmose ІV (1413-1405 BC), the large sphinx in Giza was filled with sand. According to the text of the stele, this son of the pharaoh hunted in large pyramids and a large sphinx. Weary, he fell asleep at noon in the shadow of a huge sculpture. The god Harmahis-Hepri-Ra-Atum, whom, according to the generally accepted opinion of the Egyptians of the time, was depicted by the sphinx, appeared to him, and ordered to excavate his image, covered down the neck with desert sand. God promised Thutmose the throne. Waking up, Thutmose fulfilled the command of the deity and hoisted a stele between the legs of the sphinx with the corresponding text in honor of this event.
The Emergence of Oracles
According to sources, oracles appeared in Egypt only during the XVІІІ dynasty. Thus, Pharaoh Thutmose ІII became the ruler of Egypt precisely as a result of the "indication" of the god Amun himself - at that time Thutmose was one of the priests of this god. The "sign" of the deity was expressed during the service, but in what form the text is silent about this.
During the reign of the XVІІI dynasty, God Amon "expressed his wishes" two more times. At his "direction," Queen Hatshepsut sent the famous expedition to Punt, and Pharaoh Thutmose ІV opposed the rebels in Nubia. As subtly noticed by J. Cherna, these "instructions" were given by the deity inside the temple, while all subsequent oracles broadcast outside the temple, at the gathering of the people, during religious processions and festivals.
The documents that have reached us are clear evidence that competent persons interpreted the will of the deity in writing. But how was this will expressed? The question is far from idle, because in most cases oracles broadcast not in the darkness of the temple, but outside it, in daylight, with a large gathering of people. The existing technique of "expression of will" of the deity is still unknown, it is not described in documents that have come down to us. I. Cherny considers it most likely that the deity, that is, his idol, "approached" on a portable barque in a pump to the one who posed the question in case of a positive answer and was removed from it in case of a negative one, that is, the oracle gave only "yes" or "no" answers, which were then widely interpreted.
Strabo, talking about Alexander's visit to the oasis of Siwa, argues that "the oracle's answers were not given by words, as in Delphi and the Branhids, but mostly by nods and signs, as in Homer... with the soothsayer assuming the role of Zeus. " If Strabo's words are true, then at least for the ІV century B.C.E., the secret of the technique of "expressing the will" of God is simply explained - on behalf of God, the priest spoke. Probably, this was the same or approximately the case in previous times.
Cult of Hnum in Esne
Main article: Aswan
The oldest surviving temple in Egypt
From the times preceding the XVІІ dynasty, temples have not been preserved. Science has specific information about Egyptian temples only since the XVІІІ dynasty.
Almost all temples of the time of the New Kingdom had an elongated rectangle in plan. The plan of the temple of this type in the main features is close to the plan of a residential building of the time of the Middle and especially the New Kingdom, which is natural, since the temple was considered the dwelling of God.
The chapel was located in the depths of the temple and could consist of several rooms: in the central - there was a statue of the main deity of the temple, in the rest - statues of other deities, most often the goddess-wife and god-son. Around the main premises were additional halls, a temple library, rooms for special rituals, vaults.
God Amon-Ra is considered the patron saint of the expansion of the empire
God Amon begins to acquire the character of a social force on which the fates of individuals and the Egyptian state as a whole depend. The rise of Amon is organically associated with the rise of the KhІ dynasty first, and then, after the Second Transitional Period, the period of fragmentation of Egypt and the capture of its northern part by the Hyksos, the XVІІI dynasty (and even the end of XVІІ), which expelled the Hyksos from the country and created the Egyptian empire. Victories, military and political, were seen as a gift from the Theban god to the conquering pharaohs. The text (inscribed in the 15th century BC on a magnificent stele that stood in Karnak and is now stored in the Cairo Museum), containing the speech of the god Amon himself, addressed to his divine and royal son, Pharaoh-conqueror Thutmose І, Speaks Amon-Ra, Lord of Karnak... I give you power and victories over all foreign countries.. I subvert your enemies under your sandals... I give you the land in its entire length and width, the inhabitants of the west and east under your authority... I am your guide, so you overtake them... "etc.
Thus, the god Thebes Amon-Ra is no longer only a demiurge, the creator of gods and people, but also the creator of the Egyptian empire, giving victories and conquests to the Egyptian king, the ruler of Pharaoh and his army, the divine initiator and organizer of Egyptian aggression outside Egypt. Later, the pharaohs KhІKh the Seti dynasty І and Ramses ІІ ordered the reproduction of the text of the "Anthem," each for themselves.
The motives of the victorious war on behalf of and for the glory of Amon-Ra are heard in many diverse texts. The famous "Poem of Pentaur" by an unknown author describes the military valor of Ramesses І in the fight against the Hittites. Pharaoh is surrounded by countless enemies, facing imminent doom. And so he prays to his divine father, Amon-Ra:
'What's bothering you, my father Amon? Should a father neglect his son? Did I do anything significant without you? I have not disobeyed any of your orders. How great is the great lord of Egypt, allowing foreigners to approach him, "etc.
After graduating from prayer, Ramesses ІІ sees Amon-Ra himself next to him. 'I'm with you, I'm your father, my hand is with you, I'm [one] healthier than hundreds of thousands of people. I am the lord of victories, loving valor, "he says. This is followed by the words of Ramesses ІІ - he likens himself to the god Mont (ІІ naturally does not dare to compare himself with the "father" Amon Ramesses).
Thus, the pharaohs, starting from the XVІIІ dynasty, quite deliberately declared Amon-Ra a patron god, defender of the pharaoh and his troops, defender of the country, while the favors of Amon-Ra extended not only to the pharaoh himself, but also to his entourage - to the dominant class, to the army. During the time of Ramesses ІІ, there were four units of troops bearing the names of four great deities: Amon, Ra, Pta and Suteha. This indicates that great deities, including Amon, began to personify not only natural, but also social forces. The deity patronizing the army, of course, showed favor not only for military leaders (although to them in the first place), but also for soldiers representing the common people. By ordinary citizens, Amon was seen as a defender of the suffering and oppressed.
Amon was depicted as an anthropomorphic god, painted blue (the color of the sky), and only in his Luxor hypostasis (Amanapet) did he imagine, like Min of Coptos, an itifallic god. The sacred animals of Amun were goose and sheep.
You can say without exaggeration. That for centuries Amon (or Amon-Ra) was in the Egyptian religious consciousness the chief god, standing above all other gods. A significant part of the booty captured in victorious wars and campaigns was brought by the king as a gift to this god, that is, in fact, it became the property of temples. The greatness and significance of God was based on the economic and political power of Thebes (the result of many years of invading wars).
"Spells for Publication" or "Book of the Dead"
"The Book" is the closest modern term to describe a disparate collection of texts, consisting of a series of magical spells designed to facilitate the journey of a deceased person through the Duat, or underworld, into the afterlife and written by many priests for about 1,000 years. These funerary texts (often much more ancient), were usually written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BC) until about 50 BC.
The original Egyptian title of the text, transliterated rw nw prt m hrw, translates as "Spells to Go Out." Individual chapters were called per-em-heru 'exit during the day'; there was an opportunity for the deceased to leave the tomb during the day and return to it until the night. Then this title was transferred to the entire book.
A German researcher coined the unsuccessful term "Book of the Dead," which, unfortunately, became entrenched in literature.
"The new kingdom was also a new era in the development of memorial literature. Ways to achieve afterlife benefits have been further simplified and made available to even wider circles. Magical texts that opened otherworldly monasteries and reported immortality already in the Middle Kingdom began to be written on papyrus. Since the XVІІI dynasty, this has been done as usual, which was also facilitated by the shape of a mummy-like coffin, decorated with images and less convenient for placing long texts than the large wooden sarcophagi-boxes of the previous era. These texts from the walls of sarcophagi go to papyrus scrolls, often prepared earlier by factory, and are placed in coffins. All this required less time and labor than placing texts on the walls of sarcophagi and, especially, on the walls of tombs. The very texts are already edited for the most part in the first person on behalf of the deceased and, thus, present a real collection of magical sayings, placed at the disposal of a wanderer in the afterlife as a manual for his memory. The ritual nature and role of the priest pronouncing these texts is thus further pushed back.
Numerous more works of the same nature of later eras are known, up to and including Roman. All this with the same right can be called the Books of the Dead, since their purpose is also to serve for those who have gone to another world. "
The content of the Book of the Dead is motley and heterogeneous, its components are a variety of texts, some of which go back to the Texts of the Pyramids, others to the Texts of Sarcophagi, while many represent the work of the New Kingdom era. In other words, the "Book of the Dead" was created from 2300 to 1700 BC. e. approx. " The beginning of this process can even be somewhat pushed back into the centuries. Due to the heterogeneity of origin, the Book of the Dead is not monolithic in theory or form. The final edition of the Book of the Dead dates back to the Saisi era (the time of the XXVІ Dynasty, the VІІ century BC).
The complete development of the idea of the afterlife court of Osiris in the 125th chapter of the "Book of the Dead"
Main article: Afterlife Court
1550 BC: Ahmose I
Yahmos I (Yahmes I) - Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, who ruled around 1550-1525 BC. e., the first ruler of the XVIII dynasty.
Second transitional period: XIV-XVII dynasties. Invasion of the Hyksos
From 1650 to 1550 BC, Egypt experienced an invasion by the Hyksos, who captured the Nile Delta and extended their control to middle Egypt.
The oldest known cult burial of a cat
The cult of the cat was widespread. In the famous 17th chapter of the Book of the Dead, one of the most important gods of the Egyptian pantheon, the sun god Ra, appears as a "great cat."
The oldest burial of a cat in ancient Egypt dates from the end of the XVІІ dynasty: a cat coffin was preserved, built by order of the high priest of Memphis - Thutmose.
Among the oldest finds of domestic cats is the cat family (cat, cat and four kittens) 5800-5600 years old from Nehen (Hierakonpol) [4]
Middle kingdom: XI-XIII dynasties
Sarcophagus texts
Sarcophagus texts are the largest collection of Egyptian funeral texts.
Skepticism about posthumous life in the tomb leads to the strengthening of the cult of Osiris, who displaces Ra as king of the afterlife. All aspire to be buried in Abju - the 'burial place' of Osiris
Main article: Osiris and Isis
Ushebti - figurines of servants "come to life" in the afterlife to perform works for the deceased for Osiris
Main article: Osiris and Isis
Amun Theban performs for the first time in the guise of a ram
Amun of Thebany first appears in the guise of a ram during the Middle Kingdom.
The cult of the ram in Egypt has been associated with many deities. So, on the island of Elephantine, the ram was the embodiment of the local god Khnum, also in Esna, where the god Khnum was also revered, and in other cities. Near Fayum, in Middle Egypt, in the city of Herakleopol, the ram was the embodiment of the local god Harshef, and in Mendes, the cult of the ram could even compete with the cult of Apis. Here the ram was the earthly embodiment of the soul of the god Osiris.
Fortification of Khmun (Hermopolis) with the cult of Thoth
Main article: Minya
1956 BC: Senusert I
Senusert I - Pharaoh, who ruled around 1956-1911-1910 BC. e.; from the XII dynasty.
Paradoxically, in the famous "Tale of Sinuch," Senusert is І celebrated as a god and also contains a prayer for him to the gods. Similar texts have survived many from a wide variety of periods in the history of Egypt.
Pharaohs with crocodile dedication names
In a number of texts, the crocodile-Sebek is seen as a reliable defender of the gods, his ferocity and other frightening qualities allegedly scare away the powers of evil and darkness from the gods. During the Middle Kingdom era, theophoric names Sebekemsaf and Sebekhotep were popular in Thebaid, respectively meaning "Sebek protecting him" and "Sebek satisfied" and indicating that Sebek, in the view of the Egyptians, could be a defender not only of gods, but also of people. Even the pharaohs of the KhІІ dynasty bore the name Sebekhotep.
Dead sacred crocodiles were embalmed and buried. Excellent specimens of crocodile mummies are kept in the Cairo Museum.
1991 BC: Amenemhat І establishes XII Dynasty. The rise of the cult of Amun in the form of an invisible spirit
The founder of the KhІІ dynasty was Pharaoh Amenemhat І (1991-1962 BC). His theophoric name Amenemhat, meaning "Amun at the head," is one of the first evidence of the cult of Amun in Thebes. "It is certain that the genus of Amenemhat І was especially devoted to the cult of Amun, which, in turn, owes much to this genus: without vigorous support, Amon would not have been able to push back the old local god Mont so quickly."
The religious policy of the kings of the KhІІ dynasty made the cult of Amun nationwide. For more details, see Luxor.
2000 BC.
Death of Egypt's second unifier Mentuhotep Nebhebtre, pharaoh of XI dynasty
Black magic against Egypt's enemies in the Northeast and South
Museums in Cairo, Berlin and Brussels contain texts dating back to the time of the Middle Kingdom (circa 2000 BC). e.), inscribed on shards of ceramics or on roughly made figurines of people. The content of these texts is magical; it aims to bring disease and death on the eternal enemies of Egypt of the leaders of countries and tribes located northeast of the Isthmus of Suez and south of the first threshold of the Nile. Spells were written on whole clay vessels, then the vessels were cursed and broken. Figurines with the names of enemies also indulged in a curse. The shards and figurines were then buried in the necropolis, where they were found.
In this case, we are dealing with malicious, black magic that protects the state [5].
The rise of Thebes and the unification of Egypt under their rule
The rise of Thebes with the assertion of a KhІ dynasty was the result of the strengthening of centripetal forces that manifested themselves in Egyptian society after years of internecine war and the collapse of the centralized monarchy of the Old Kingdom. During this war, the rulers of Thebes managed not only to defeat their rivals, the rulers of other nomes, but also to subjugate them to their power, and then become the head of Egypt, which they re-united, and take possession of the throne.
On the western bank of the Nile there are memorial temples of the pharaohs of KhІ, as well as XVІIІ -XX dynasties, here were also located the famous Valleys of Kings and Queens, where the rulers of Egypt rested, and necropolises of courtiers, military leaders, officials, priests, nobles in general, served by local workers, with a special administration. On the west bank was managed by the "mayor of the west," on the east - simply by the "mayor."
First transition and disintegration of the country: VII-X dynasties
From 2181 to 2055, the VII-X dynasties rule. Egypt suffers from the weakness of the central government, which leads to the temporary collapse of the country.
The idea of an afterlife judgment of the gods with weighing the heart - psychostasis
Main article: Afterlife Court
Democratization of ideas about the afterlife: ordinary citizens receive the right to a stele with a text about everything necessary after death
The fall of the Old Kingdom with its super-centralization of power in the pharaoh's residence was accompanied by deep shifts in the spiritual life of the Egyptians.
"The four centuries separating the sixth dynasty from the brilliant Middle Kingdom era meant much in the life of the Egyptian people; he survived during this time much more than the meager monuments that survived from an intermediate era full of turmoil report... The disintegration of the country, the war of all against all, the decline of the center and divine power of the pharaohs, the fall of external power and internal well-being and order could not but cause a huge work of thought of the best people and pose questions to them regarding a wide variety of aspects of the surrounding reality. Problems of a religious, political, social, ethical nature worried minds, looking for answers to their bewilderment and doubts in the form of a constant inconsistency of centuries-old ideas and ideals with gloomy reality. On this basis, individualism is developing. The individual values his individual immortality, having reached the royal prerogatives behind the coffin. "
"Starting from the VІІ dynasty, ideas about the afterlife are democratized," Turaev points out quite correctly. The essence of this democratization was that now not only the pharaoh, who slept forever in his pyramid, not only his noble and dignitary nobility, buried in numerous mastabs, but also ordinary mortals claim privileges in the otherworldly world. Bulky mastaba-type tombs became superfluous, to ensure eternal life behind the coffin, a simple mortal was content with a stele - a stone slab on which everything was written that was needed for the deceased in the otherworldly world. And there was no need for periodic reading of this text by any of the living. The text itself provided for the deceased and the afterlife, and material supply. In other words, technically, the cult of the dead has simplified.
At the end of the Middle Kingdom era, the pyramid, as the shape of the royal tomb, disappears.
Old kingdom: from III to VI dynasties
Real gifts in favor of the deceased are replaced by magical fiction - artificial gifts, spells and prayers
During the Old Kingdom period, the deceased, who lived in the tomb, was bestowed with offerings either at his own expense or at the expense of the crown. For the material support of the cult of the dead, special land plots were allocated intended for "feeding" the deceased, and the persons who performed the functions of "feeding" were called "hem-ka" ("slaves of the woman"). But very soon this practice turned out to be very unprofitable and in fact the gifts in favor of the deceased were replaced by magical fiction.
In the mastab of dignitaries of the time of the Old Kingdom, texts were found inviting visitors to the necropolis to refrain from violating ritual purity and actively help the deceased with spells and prayers. As [6] wrote, [7], the content of these "appeals to the living," which have come down to us from the time of the V and VІ dynasties, is summarized as follows:
1) the visitor of the necropolis has no right to approach the tomb if he is not ritually clean, if he ate, for example, prohibited food;
2) the visitor should not desecrate the tomb ritually - otherwise the threats of the deceased were addressed to him;
3) the visitor must not damage the tomb building so as not to incur the wrath of the deceased;
4) the visitor was admonished to read the text of the sacrificial prayer in favor of the deceased; this magical action replaced the material offering. The appeals are addressed either to the loved ones and relatives of the deceased, or to persons who accidentally fell into the necropolis, or, finally, to special persons called upon to observe the cult of the dead. The exhortation addressed to the "living, still on earth" was accompanied by encouragement or threats from the deceased: the deceased promised the living intercession to divine forces in the event of a benevolent attitude towards him and the threat to "sue" him before the "great god" or even "roll his neck" otherwise, as well as the threat to bring misfortune to him on earth.
Thus, the deceased in relation to the living was perceived not as a passive, neutral creature, but as a creature capable of causing evil to the living or, conversely, being useful to them.
Particular attention is paid in these texts to sacrificial prayer in favor of the deceased, replacing material offerings. The prayer was addressed to the gods so that the gods would provide the deceased with what is listed in it. There was even something like a more or less standard "menu" for the dead - a list of food and other offerings: bread, beer, bulls, poultry, various types of clothes, etc. Most often, prayer was addressed to the god of the kingdom of the dead Osiris and the god Anubis. A memorial sacrificial prayer in the interests of the deceased was said on behalf of the king - the demigod and unlimited lord of the material resources of all temples. The king's offerings as a creature close to the gods were pleasing to the gods and therefore effective.
So magical fiction saved the Egyptians for many centuries from the overwhelming material expenditure on the cult of the dead.
The afterlife of the nobility, of course, could not yet be identical with the royal - they were not gods and could not connect with the gods in heaven in Ra's boat. The biggest thing they could count on was continuing on the other side of the same conditions they were in on Earth. Therefore, the walls of their tomb chambers (mastaba) are covered with bas-reliefs depicting them in an earthly environment, among the family, in the line of duty, in field work on estates, during hunting, fishing and other entertainment. Here are peasants carrying taxes or material for a funeral cult from villages, and relatives with priests who cope with this cult, and artisans building Nile ships, and shepherds with their songs and priests. Already from the VІ dynasty, we find here military scenes in which the deceased participated. The texts give indications of the career of the deceased, his proximity to the court and sometimes even genuine letters of the king. Science owes this richest cultural and historical material to the belief of the Egyptians in magic, which turned all these images into real life, subject to a funeral cult. Magic taught relatives to prepare artificial gifts (animals, chefs, vessels) from wood and stone and by formulas to inform them of the ability to use, moreover, constant. But this was not enough: magic made it possible to provide for eternal times, even after the termination of the clan, a funeral cult and rid it of the possibility of termination, which should inevitably come sooner or later, despite any contributions and wills. We came to the belief that the image of the victim on the gravestone or altar is valid if a magical formula is written near it, referring gifts to the deceased, named by name and motherhood (not by patronymic, for greater reliability). This discovery made it possible for the living Egyptians to become very generous regarding their dead: in the inscriptions they bring them through Osiris and Anubis usually a thousand bulls, geese, loaves, etc. The most important and simple of magical actions is the reading of this funeral formula with the obligatory mention of the name of the deceased. The reading formula by this necessarily determined its action and forced Osiris and the gods to provide what it required in that world. "
Burials of ordinary labor people were performed until the end of the Old Kingdom era (including the reign of the V and VI dynasties), as in prehistoric times, without any special funeral structures and mummification. Their otherworldly existence of comfort did not imply.
Letters to the dead with requests from the living
Since the afterlife, in the view of the ancient Egyptians, was a natural continuation of earthly life, and the deceased was perceived as actually existing, able to also harm or, conversely, help his loved ones on earth, the living sometimes tried to establish contact with deceased relatives through letters. See Giza for details.
In History at the end of the IV dynasty
The first beginnings of moral principles in determining the afterlife of the deceased against the background of the dominance of magic and ritual
Moral principles played the most minimal role in determining the afterlife of the deceased, but their presence during the V and VІ dynasties cannot be ignored. As proof, M.A. Korostovtsev cites several excerpts from texts inscribed in the tombs of nobles of the Old Kingdom era. See Aswan for details.
Uaset is still a minor settlement. The thunderstorm god Amon begins a transformation into a local supreme deity amid the cult's dominance Mont
Main article: Luxor
During the Old Kingdom era, Uaset (Thebes, Luxor) was a minor settlement on the east bank of the Nile.
Pyramid texts are the oldest collection of religious texts in the world
Main article: Pyramid texts
- Maat is the main link in Egyptian ethics
- Humanization of images of gods in the largest cities, because in addition to the forces of nature, people begin to be greatly influenced by the actions of nomarchs and pharaohs
- The cults of Osiris, Isis and Bastet in the Nile Delta
The priests of Heliopolis create the cults of Atum and the eight gods who were the first "rulers" of Egypt, and the pharaohs - "living Choirs" - their heirs
In Heliopolis, the oldest Egyptian theogony and cosmogony were created and developed, as far as can be judged. The emergence from the eternal chaos of the great, "self-created" chthonic god Atum ("perfect") was the beginning of the universe.
So Atum and his offspring make up a collection of nine deities, the Heliopolian nine, or ennead. This theogony, sufficiently abstract, reveals traces of the theological work of the Heliopolian priesthood. It was already attested in the Texts of the Pyramids and had a huge influence on the theological thought of other major religious centers, such as Memphis, Hermopol and Thebes. See heliopol for details.
"Houses of Life" at churches in which priests created magical and religious texts
Persons involved in the treatment and interpretation of dreams at churches were qualified priest-readers, often associated with "houses of life." The latter existed at many churches: they were scriptorias, where magical and religious texts were created primarily, and not higher schools like universities, as previously believed. It was creative scriptorias, mainly magico-religious, that had a very serious impact on the spiritual life of the Egyptians. Scribes "house of life" were considered the most qualified, educated and wise of all [8].
The mythology of ancient Egypt available for study is recorded in many texts (papyri, inscriptions). These texts, which have come down to us from a wide variety of eras, are mainly the fruits of the theological work of priestly collectives, in which, therefore, myth-making never ceased. Science has very scarce information about the myth-making of the masses.
The basis of myth-making is not one factor, but a combination of different factors. In particular, among the factors of Egyptian mythmaking, as evidenced by a number of Egyptian texts, was a play on words and phonemic [9]. For example, in the Bremner-Rind papyrus (27. 2-3) god Ra calls people his tears. The consonance of the words "people" (rmt) and "tears" (rmt) is very important here.
At the same time, the appearance of Egyptian deities (meaning no more or less stable external, iconographic appearance, and the appearance is functional - their role in religion) is most often very vague, devoid of clarity, unstable.
To an even greater extent, this refers to the mythological biography of individual characters of the Egyptian pantheon, to the relationships of these characters in different versions of myths, often containing mutually exclusive statements.
2305 BC: Pepi I and his son Merenra I are the first documented joint rule in Egyptian history
As Alessandro Bongioanni and Maria Croce write: "Merenra was publicly presented as the successor of his father on the occasion of the anniversary (the holiday of Heb-Sed)." Due to the failed conspiracy, Pepi I may have taken a radical step and crowned Merenra during his reign, thereby creating the earliest documented joint rule in Egyptian history. "
2345 BC: Possible removal of tumors
The ancient Egyptians could carry out the surgical removal of cancerous tumors more than 4.6 thousand years ago. This conclusion was reached at the end of May 2024 by scientists from the University of Cambridge, who used modern methods of digital microscopy and microcomputer tomography (CT scanning) to analyze ancient skulls. Read more here.
Memphis Necropolis in Saqqara, Dahshura, Giza and Abusir
The Memphis Necropolis includes pyramid complexes at Saqqara, Dahshura, Giza, and Abusir. See Giza for details.
2400 BC: Palermo stone with a list of kings of the first dynasties
The Palermo Stone is one of seven surviving fragments of a stele known as the "Royal Annals of the Ancient Kingdom of Ancient Egypt."
The stela contained a list of kings of Egypt from the First Dynasty (c. 3150-2890 BC) to the beginning of the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2498-2345 BC) and marked important events of each year of their reign. It was probably made during the Fifth Dynasty.
2487 BC: Sahura - Pharaoh of the V dynasty
Sahura, the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, ruled around 2487-2475 BC. e.; from the V dynasty.
Solar shrines with obelisks are the oldest "temples" known in Egypt
From the time of the Old Kingdom, temples have not survived, with the exception of the funeral - at the tombs of the pharaohs.
Each pharaoh of the V dynasty erected a "temple of the sun." Six kings of the 5th dynasty built their temples in the area of Abu Gurab, several south of Giza. The remains of two of these temples have been discovered:
- the temple of Pharaoh Userkaf and
- temple of Pharaoh Niuserra.
For more on "solar temples," see Giza.
The fiction that the king was physically conceived from God
Of the five members of the title, four contain the identification of the pharaoh with the gods. This means that Pharaoh was officially declared a god.
In addition to the fiction of the divine nature of the pharaoh, there was another fiction that aimed to "prove" the first. Its essence was that Pharaoh was not only declared the "son of Ra," but in fact was born the queen from the god Ra himself, who represented himself in the form of Pharaoh. This version of theogamy arose, undoubtedly, already in the era of the Old Kingdom. The famous Westkar papyrus, containing a tale of the V dynasty kings' origins, tells of a priest of the god Ra named Rausera and his wife Regedet, who gave birth to three boys, but not to her husband, the priest, but to the god Ra himself (papyrus Westkar 9, 9-10). Having matured, they laid the foundation for the V dynasty.
For later examples, see Luxor.
2486 BC: Death of Pharaoh Menkaur IV dynasty
Main article: Giza
Menkaura (Mikerin), the fifth pharaoh of the IV dynasty, who ruled around 2514-2486 BC. e., built a third pyramid on the Giza plateau.
2560 BC: Great pyramids at Giza, sphinx and boats to reunite pharaoh in heaven with his "father" - the god Ra
Main article: Giza
False doors in tombs
The ancient Egyptians believed that between the worlds of the living and the dead there were false doors through which the deity or spirit of the deceased could pass. The false door was usually the basis of the heart of the tomb, where relatives left offerings to the deceased on a special sacrificial slab in front of the false door. Most false doors are located at the western wall of the burial chamber or serdab, since the ancient Egyptians associated the West with the land of the dead. False doors were found in many mastabs.
False doors have become common since the 3rd Dynasty.
The semi-cylindrical cornice in the center was a rolled reed mat that usually hung on the doorstep of real doors.
The serdab contained sculptural portraits of the deceased, that is, deputies of the mummy of the deceased in case of its destruction or damage. It is from these serdabs that wonderful sculptural portraits take place, which are one of the treasures of ancient Egyptian art. Serdab connected with other rooms of the tomb only a small window.
2665 BC: Joser establishes III Dynasty and builds step pyramid - Egypt's first
Jozer (Egypt. "sacred") - the pharaoh of Ancient Egypt from the III dynasty, who is its founder, who ruled around 2665-2645 BC. e. On modern monuments, this pharaoh is called Necherichet.
Jaucer became the builder of the first pyramid-shaped tomb while it was stepped. See Giza for details.
Early kingdom: I and II dynasties
The formation of the cult of the dead: for their afterlife, the care of the living is needed
The Egyptians' ideas about the afterlife developed at a very distant time, located outside the historical period available for research on written sources, that is, long before the unification of Egypt at the turn of the ІV and ІII millennia BC. e. And science can come to any conclusions about the ideas of the Egyptians about the afterlife, relying mainly on purely archaeological sources. However, the "Texts of the Pyramids," inscribed in the pyramids of the pharaohs of the V and VІ dynasties, that is, later than the XXV century. BC e., contain a number of places that have arisen, undoubtedly, in the oldest prehistoric times, from which written sources did not reach us, and convincingly confirming the conclusions of a purely archaeological order.
Burning the body, like beheading, was considered a terrible fate for the deceased: the text of the decree of the pharaoh XІІI dynasty Neferhotep І, issued to protect the necropolis of Abidju, states that the death penalty by burning threatens everyone who desecrates the graves of the necropolis. The thought of burning the bodies of the dead was alien to the Egyptians.
Thus, the evolution from Neolithic burials to burials of the historical era, from primitive graves-pits to architecturally improved tombs, from the lack of artificial preservation of the body to highly improved mummification is quite consistently and clearly traced. This evolution in itself, and even more so in the interpretation of the "Texts of the Pyramids," no doubt reveals the basic idea of the Egyptians about the afterlife as a direct continuation of the life of the earth. At the same time the full safety of a body of the dead appears a necessary condition.
According to the ideas of the ancient Egyptians, the one who died in the grave is helpless and living, primarily close family, relatives, are called upon to provide him with an afterlife. The care of the living for the dead is the funeral cult of the dead, sent alive.
As [10] wrote, [11], the cult of the dead among the Egyptians cannot be mixed with the cult of ancestors among other peoples. The cult of the dead is not the deification of the dead, but the care of the living for the otherworldly life of the dead, the duty of the living in relation to the dead. The cult of the dead was not a distracted religious duty for the Egyptians, but a practical necessity due to the transition of loved ones to another world. It was essentially a struggle against death for eternal life. This explains the paramount importance of the cult of the dead in the life of Egyptians throughout the history of Egyptian society from the Neolithic to the complete disappearance of Egyptian culture.
Over time, the forms of this cult changed, its content was enriched, but the foundation remained unshakable, which had fully developed already during the early Old Kingdom. The deceased continues to live in the grave, subject to the preservation in the integrity of his body and the care of the living for him - this primitive idea was never abandoned by the Egyptians, it was only bizarre and sometimes contradictory combined with ideas that arose later. According to these later ideas, the deceased, continuing his life in the grave, in addition to the needs for food and drinks, there is a need to go out of the grave into daylight, take off to heaven to the gods, etc. This need is no longer experienced by the body of the deceased, but by a material element, but invisible to the human eye, which can be in the grave, but can also be removed from it anywhere.
These views of the Egyptians often appear in the texts, which, however, does not provide sufficient grounds for certain judgments about them, since the Egyptians themselves did not have sufficient clarity on the issues of the funeral cult. There is no doubt only that the Egyptians developed the belief that after the death of a person some kind of invisible but material substance of his individual being continues life, long before the unification of the country.
Written sources from the time of united Egypt contain very vague information about the human afterlife and in what forms it was thought by the Egyptians. The texts present different names of forms, but whether these names referred to different manifestations of the same substance of a human being or denoted different invisible components of a person after death is certainly impossible to say. The most cautious and objective opinion on this issue seems to be the following: basically, different names were the designation of the same human afterlife, but there could also be an idea of the existence of different substances, especially since the ideas about the afterlife underwent undoubted changes in time and depending on the place.
Ba is the soul of man, manifested only after death. Portrayed as a bird with a human head
Ba - the so-called imaginary creature, which was the soul of man and the soul of the gods. As far as can be judged by the "Texts of the Pyramids," the word "ba" had two meanings: it was a kind of synonym for the word "god" and at the same time meant something like "soul." In the last sense of the word, the oldest texts remain silent in the Texts of the Pyramids, only the ba of the deceased pharaoh is mentioned. The Texts of Sarcophagi refers to the ba of representatives of the nobility buried in these sarcophagi (the era after the fall of the Old Kingdom, when the so-called democratization of the funeral cult began). Consequently, during the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh had a ba (soul).
Ba was thought to exist only after the death of a person and was depicted as a bird with a human head. Talking about a living person is pointless.
From the memorial texts of different times after the fall of the Old Kingdom, it is obvious that ba was considered an element to some extent enlivening the mummy of the deceased, that ba and the body of the deceased were tied by close ties and that ba, at least in part, lived in the tomb. At the same time, ba, who thought like a bird, could leave the tomb, go anywhere, rise to heaven, but invariably had to return to the grave to whose soul it was. Thus, ba led, so to speak, a dual existence.
Some chapters of the Book of the Dead mention the transformation of the soul into a golden and divine kobchik, into a phoenix, a crane, an aries, a swallow, a snake, a crocodile, that is, in those animals that in terms of totemism were thought by the Egyptians as mighty deities capable of resisting the dangers of the afterlife. Turning into them was a means for the soul to protect itself from these dangers, that is, to ensure immortality. In addition, ba was thought of as a bird with which access to the gods to heaven was opened.
According to Egyptian ideas, ba was free to fly anywhere. The desire of the deceased to turn into this or that divine animal was dictated solely by the desire to secure eternal life in the otherworldly world.
In the time of the Ramessids, ba was sometimes depicted in the Book of the Dead sitting on a tree near the tomb, drinking water from a pond, descending into the tomb to the body with which it was associated. In other words, the more or less permanent location of the ba was the tomb of the deceased. The gods also had their souls (ba), the god Ra - even as many as seven.
2686 BC.
Map of cities in Egypt
There is an assumption that the ancient Greek word "Aigüptos" - Egypt, is derived from one of the names of Memphis - Hut-ka-Ptah. This name meant "Temple of ka Ptah" (translit. Egypt. Hwt-kA-ptH). The ancient Egyptians Hut-ka-Ptah first had the name of the Memphis sanctuary of the creator god Ptah, which passed into the name of the city, and eventually became the name of the surrounding area (sept), and later, from the name of this area, the ancient Greeks extended their version of the name to all of Ancient Egypt.
Brick structures in Nehen and Abju of the first great builder of Egypt - King Hasehemui
Main article: Nehen
Apparently, after the reunification of Egypt, Hasehemui undertook significant construction projects. He built from stone and brick in Neheb (El Qab), Nehen and Abju (Shunet ez-Zebib) and was buried in the latter, in a necropolis in Umm el-Qaab. He may also have built Gisr el-Mudir in Saqqara.
The statue's pedestal has images of killed enemies on four sides, reflecting a military campaign against "northern rebels," referring to the inhabitants of the Nile Delta.
On the front side is the number of enemies killed - 47,209 people, with a symbol that is usually considered the designation of "Libyans." This scene apparently captured Hasehemuya's victory over the northern Egyptian population, led by their ruler Besh. The name Besh may be a variant or name of Peribsen, or, more likely, the name of a Libyan northern tribe near Fayum. This iconography of the king crushing enemies at his feet remained a central theme of royal iconography for the next three millennia.
2690 BC: Tables for libations with magic spells
Libation tables with lion heads. Sculpted from alabaster blocks, these altars were used either as a sacrificial altar or as an libation table, probably during the feast of Sed (the 30th anniversary of Pharaoh's reign).
The altar is tilted down to a circular pool around which the tails of lions curl. Formulas of magical offerings and prayers were recited when libations such as water, milk, beer or wine were poured onto the altar.
The fluids were then collected in the pelvis and presented to the gods or Ka of the deceased. The same magical and sacred formulas were required during the sacrificial rites performed on the altar, in which case the blood of the sacrificial animal was collected in the pelvis.
The use of lion heads and paws as decorative elements on thrones, chairs and beds was a popular theme in ancient Egypt. The lion was associated with the horizon where the sun god rose, and these features gave the piece of furniture a feeling of strength and protection.
2890 BC: Khor Ka-a is the last pharaoh of the 1st dynasty
The Choir of Ka'a ("'Choir - High Hand'") is the last, eighth pharaoh of the 1st dynasty of the Early Kingdom (c. 2890 BC). From the Abydos List, his name is known as Kebeh or from the Saqqara List and the Kebhu Papyrus of Turin. According to Manetho, Kaa reigned for 26 years.
Below is one of several steles that were installed at the tomb of Ka-a in Abydos.
Local cults with cycles of local mythology
Local cults have undergone significant changes, but the very fact of their existence over millennia is one of the main features of Egyptian religious development.
What is common about local cults boils down to the following:
1) the oldest local totemism has turned into a cult of a local god, either manifested in the form of an animal, or anthropomorphic, often with the presence of zoomorphic elements;
2) the local god very early becomes the central figure of the myths that develop about him, cycles of local mythology arise;
3) the local god is a demiurge, the creator of the gods and the world, he is above all other gods;
4) around the god of the local center, the gods of settlements subordinate to this local center are grouped. The heavenly hierarchy reflects the earthly, real. Groups in the form of a triad are especially common: god-father, goddess-mother, god-son, but more numerous existed.
The political history of the country had a huge influence on the development of Egyptian religious ideas; some local gods were nominated in the course of history to the position of all-Egyptian deities, revered throughout the country. This happened when one or another city, one or another region became, due to the development of historical events, central, in other words, metropolitan, and represented the residence of the pharaoh. Or when this or that city, not becoming the capital, but using the patronage of Pharaoh, towered over others. The local deity emerged from the shadow of provincial being into the all-Egyptian religious arena.
Cult of the cobra goddess Ouajet in Lower Egypt
In the very north of the Delta, just east of the Rosetta branch of the Nile, is modern Tel el-Faraun. Buto of the ancient Greeks, which the Egyptians called Pe or Dep. The local deity since the deepest antiquity here was the cobra goddess Ouajet, the patron saint of Lower Egypt. The names of Uajet and the goddess of Upper Egypt-ta Nehbet (kite) later entered as obligatory components in the title of pharaohs of the united Egypt.
Crocodile cult in some areas
One of the many crocodiles was awarded, for some reasons still incomprehensible to us, the honor of elevation to the title of supreme head, the royal representative of all other crocodiles... Judging by the analogy to the cults of other animal species, as well as the religious and everyday practice of later periods of ancient Egyptian history, the supreme crocodile was already kept at the temple of the main city of the region in the primitive era, devoted to the cult of crocodiles, being surrounded by the greatest honor, we feed on sacrificial things and prayerfully call on our admirers, and the images of him as a patron of the region honoring him served as a regional coat of arms and was worn on standards and honorary stands in the war and during solemn religious processions.
The cult of the crocodile was common in many areas of Upper and Lower Egypt: at different points of Fayum, primarily in Shedit; in the Delta - in at least seven areas; in Upper Egypt - in at least 15 areas, including Ombos and Thebes. However, despite the wide distribution, the cult of the crocodile, according to Herodotus (ІІ, 69), was not all-Egyptian - in some areas it was not observed, for example, in Elephantine.
Egyptian researchers note that the ancient Egyptians treated animals as creatures of a higher level than humans. Thanks to the amazing intuition that people noted in animals, it was believed that they are closer to the gods and before people learn their will. For example, crocodiles, long before the Nile spill, know how high the water level will rise and therefore place the clutch of their eggs.
Cult of the bull APIS, the oracle of the god Pt, in Inbu Hedge (Memphis)
The cult of the bull Apis in Inbu-Hedge already existed during the 1st dynasty. See Giza for details.
Cult falcon or hawk
Modern Tel el-Balamun (dr. Egyptian Behdet), located east of the Damiett Arm in the Nile Delta, has been the center of the cult of the god Hoare for centuries.
The falcon (or hawk) with open wings was a symbol of the sky and therefore was considered divine. This idea took place already during the І dynasty. Many different mythological and religious representations were associated with the falcon (or hawk), the falcon (hawk) was the embodiment of not only the god Horus, but also some other gods, such as the god Mont. Finally, he personified Pharaoh.
2904 BC: Pharaoh Semerhet
Pharaoh I of the Semerhet dynasty ruled Egypt for eight and a half years after Pharaoh Den (2904-2895 BC).
The royal tombs of the I and II dynasties were marked by stone stellae with the name of the deceased.
The name Semerhet means "Friendly to the Assembly of Gods" and the stele indicates inside the square. Below is a top view of the walls of his palace (serekh). Above is the Khor-falcon - a symbol of tsarist power.
2880: Queen Meretneit rules Egypt
Meretnate is one of the first reliably known rulers in world history. Stella was discovered in her tomb in Abydos, located next to the tombs of King Jet, possibly her husband, and King Den, possibly her son.
The name Meretnate translates as "Beloved of the goddess Nate" and is written with hieroglyphs of crossed arrows (the emblem of the goddess Nate) and the sign "beloved."
The Meretnate Tomb was built in a cemetery that had been in use for more than a thousand years and installing steles was a long-established tradition.
3100 BC.
The unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by Narmer-Menes of Tenis and the founding of the capital in Inbu Hedge (Memphis)
In 1897, de Morgan found a record in a large tomb in Nakada. Here, under the sign mn, there is the title of "two mistresses," which was often listed in front of the names of the pharaohs of the І dynasty, indicating the pharaonic dignity of the bearer of the name. This is the only epigraphic indication at the disposal of science of those times on Pharaoh Menes, as if confirming its historicity. According to A. Gardiner, the doubts of some scientists that the record says: "King Men" are unfounded.
But none of this sheds any light on Menes's life and activities. Herodotus and Diodorus attribute to Menes, the unifier of Egypt, the founding of Memphis. Herodotus also reports that Menes built a large dam near Memphis, which protected the city from the invasion of the waters of the Nile, and founded the temple of the god Pt. The Greek historian's message echoes one text from the KhІKh Dynasty linking the god Menes and the god Pt.
Most Egyptologists agree that Narmer and Menes are one person. It is possible that the unification of the two parts of Egypt was King Scorpio, and Narmer continued this time-stretched project.
Inbu Hedge (Memphis) was founded by Narmer Menes and immediately became the capital of the united Egypt. See Giza for details.
At the same time, the famous palettes of Narmer and Narmer mace were discovered by archaeologists not in the north, but in the south - in Nehen. It has been suggested that these items were donated to the temple by the king, who ruled before in Tenis (see Sohag).
It is believed that the mace of Narmer dates from about the end of the XXXII century BC. e. and could indeed be used by Narmer, however, it is unlikely that he used a mace weighing 10 kg with a carved pattern in battle, rather it was a ceremonial weapon or sign of power.
For more on Narmer's palette and mace, see Aswan.
Cheni (Tinis) - the birthplace of the rulers of the first dynasties - in the modern Sohag region
According to Manetho, the reign of the 1st - 2nd dynasty (c. XXXI - XXVII centuries BC) in ancient Egypt was associated with the city of Cheni (Tinis), located on the western bank of the Nile. For more details, see the article on the modern Sohag area.
Pre-Dynastic: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic
Main article: Dodinastic Egypt
Notes
- ↑ class M.A. Korostovtsev Religion of Ancient Egypt, St. Petersburg, 2000, 40-41
- ↑ lions M.A. Korostovtsev
- ↑ Religion of Ancient Egypt, St. Petersburg, 2000 Str.36
- ↑ aW. Van Neer et al., 2014. More evidence for cat taming at the Predynastic elite cemetery of Hierakonpolis (Upper Egypt).
- ↑ interests of M.A. Korostovtsev. Religion of Ancient Egypt, St. Petersburg, 2000, 50-51
- ↑ M.A. KorostovtsevM.A. Korostovtsev
- ↑ Religion of Ancient Egypt, 1976, 2000, St. Petersburg, p. 296
- ↑ scribes M.A. Korostovtsev. Religion of Ancient Egypt, 62
- ↑ consonances by M.A. Korostovtsev. Religion of Ancient Egypt, 86
- ↑ M.A. KorostovtsevM.A. Korostovtsev
- ↑ Religion of Ancient Egypt, 1975, 2000, St. Petersburg, p. 269
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