Main article: Human body
Brain development
Main article: Pregnancy and childbirth
500 000 000 - years ago, the first creatures on Earth had a brainstem - it is the same as the brain of modern reptiles.
The brain begins to develop four weeks after conception, when one of the three layers of cells in the embryo rolls into a neural tube. After a week, the tube at the top bends and forms the structure of the anterior, middle and posterior brain.
From this point on, brain growth and its individual features are determined mainly by genes. But even during this period, you can get the maximum from the development of the brain if you create a favorable environment.
In the first weeks of brain development, this means that the pregnant woman is not stressed, eats well and abstains from cigarettes, alcohol and other toxins.
Sensory storm after bursting from mother's umbilical cord
At the moment when the brain breaks away from the umbilical cord and begins an independent life, a sensory storm occurs in it.
A huge amount of photons of light falls on the nerve cells of the retina of the eyes, and signals are sent to the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe. The maternal voice produces sound waves, which, reaching the inner ear, turn into electrochemical signals rushing into the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe.
In order to absorb sensory information, neurons begin to produce synapses. Dendrites come into contact with axon terminals of other nerve cells; in the synaptic cleft, axons interact with other dendrites. This is how the plasticity of the brain is realized.
Plasticity allows a person to learn even in adulthood, so it would be logical to assume that after years, as the amount of knowledge increases, the number of synaptic connections will reach its maximum value. But it's not!
Neurogenesis and synaptic pruning
The brain has the ability to neurogenesis, that is, to form new neurons, only during intrauterine development, until the first months of life.
However, in the first three years of life it forms the maximum number of synapses. According to some studies, a baby three years old has about a million billion contacts in the brain: each neuron comes into contact with another at least 15 thousand times.
An adult retains about half of these compounds. A very curious choice of evolution: instead of accumulating connections, she chose to create an excess of them, so that she could then calmly sacrifice excess.
This process is called synaptic pruning.
Brain learns faster when threatened
At the end of May 2022, a study led by Simon Fraser University researchers suggests that the brain can learn faster when threatened. Their study is published in the journal eNeuro.
The human body is constantly learning to adapt to new situations, as scientists describe in their study. In the process of motor learning, the brain adjusts actions that lead to errors in movement to develop patterns of movement that allow the body to move more safely.
To test this idea, the researchers asked a group of participants to complete a precision walking task by wearing prismatic vision-altering lenses. The lenses increased the complexity of the task, artificially shifting participants' perception of the location of the target to be stepped on, leading to errors. For some participants, the task was even more difficult, since there was a danger near the target that could cause them to slip and lose balance, and when the group returned the next week, the participants in the experiment were able to better remember and complete the task.
With the threat of possible injury, the participants' motor training improved. They were able to better correct errors in movement, which allowed them to perform tasks more safely in the future. The researchers suggest that the results they obtained could be used to develop more effective treatments to rehabilitate people with neurological disorders.
{{quote 'Physiotherapists may consider including tasks or situations that cause threatening physical consequences for patients. For example, such as loss of balance if the patient moves in a way that does not meet the goal of training. This can be achieved using seat belts or using virtual reality to simulate balance loss, said Dan Marigold, deputy director of the Simon Fraser Institute for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology. }} The results of the study also suggest that there may be other situations that can be used to improve motor learning. According to scientists, as of May 2022, it is unclear whether any other form of physical impact or emotionally exciting event could work instead of balance-threatening physical consequences. The researchers plan to test this hypothesis by the end of 2022.[1]
Human brain in numbers
86 billion - so many nerve cells (neurons) are contained in the brain. The same number of stars in our Galaxy.
10,000 - nerve connections come from one neuron in the brain to others.
100 trillion fibers create a network through which we process information, remember it and think.
1400 - grams, about the weight of the brain on average. It's independent of intelligence.
12 pairs - so many cranial nerves leave the brainstem, they are responsible for smell, hearing, eye movements, tongue and other functions.
Cerebrospinal fluid (liquor)
The brain does not actually lie in the skull box, but floats in a clear, colorless liquid consisting mainly of water.
Cerebrospinal fluid (liquor) serves as a cushion for the brain, on which it lies, without risking being crushed by its own weight.
It protects the brain as much as possible from impact; performs cleaning and washing, being one of the most important links of the glymphatic system.
In other words, cerebrospinal fluid removes different debris from the brain, flushing it predominantly during sleep, through channels compressed and decompressed by glial cells.
In other words, liquor supports trophic and metabolic processes between blood and the brain, the isolation of products of its exchange.
Liquor also ensures the maintenance of constant intracranial pressure and water-electrolyte constancy.
Bone marrow
Main article: Bone marrow
Cerebral cortex
The thickness of the cerebral cortex ranges from 2 to 4.5 mm, but this thin and moist cover of gray matter consists of six layers of neural tissue.
Each of these layers has its own structure, that is, it consists of different types of neurons associated with other areas of the cortex, subcortical layer and other parts of the brain.
Nerve impulses
Neurons
Main article: Neurons
Is it true that the human brain works like a computer?
This is not entirely true, because the brain is much more powerful. The computer works in series, and the human brain is parallel. This is due to the fact that neurons perform all the functions of a computer at the same time - memorization, reproduction, storage.
One memory cell of a computer can have only one of two values, and the brain is much more complex in this regard. Neurons have so-called spines - processes that are responsible for connecting and obtaining connections. This is a direct analogue of zero and one in the computer's memory data cell. A single neuron can have more than 20 connections. This suggests that our brain is so perfect that computers will not be able to approach it in terms of performance, most likely never.
The memory capacity of the brain is approximately 1000 terabytes. In this regard, computers can surpass us very easily, but this is not an indicator of our imperfection.
Nerve fibers
{{#video: https ://www.tadviser.ru/images/e/e9/Video2020.mp4|100%|auto||Image of nerve fibers of the human brain obtained by MGH-UCLA 3T Connectome Scanner, 2020}
The speed of movement of nerve impulses
Nerve impulses from the brain and to the brain move at 270 km/h.
Have you ever wondered how you can react so quickly to all sorts of things and why does your finger hurt immediately as soon as you pinch it? This is all because of the incredibly high speed of movement of nerve impulses from all parts of the body to the brain and back. They provide a reaction.
Memory
2024
Surprise discovery: Human brain creates multiple 'backups' of memories
In mid-August 2024, Swiss specialists from the Biocenter of the University of Basel released the results of a study saying that the human brain forms several copies of the same memories. Scientists compare this model with computer systems for reserving information.
With the help of imaging tools, the project participants studied the hippocampus: this is part of the limbic system of the brain and the hippocampus formation, which plays an important role in learning, memory and emotions. The researchers found that memories of certain events are stored in the brain as multiple parallel copies distributed across at least three different clusters of neurons. These clusters form at different stages of embryonic development. Copies differ in their characteristics, in particular, in the duration of data storage and the possibility of modification.
One of the clusters uses "early birth" neurons to store memories, which develop earlier than others as the fetus grows. Such a structure stores weak copies of memories, which are strengthened over time. In turn, neurons of "late birth" (appear at the late stages of embryonic development) initially store strong memories, but subsequently they are lost. The third cluster is intermediate: neurons appearing between the early and late groups provide the highest stability of information storage.
Understanding the mechanism of storage of memories in perspective can find application in various fields of medicine. In particular, the results of the work can help mitigate painful memories in people who have suffered trauma or any event that has had a negative impact on the mental state.[2]
How the brain preserves memories for life. Scientific explanation
At the end of June 2024, American researchers from the University of New York reported the discovery of a mechanism that plays a key role in the formation of long-term memory. It has been established that this process is associated with the KIBRA molecule, which performs the functions of a kind of "glue" for other molecules, which allows the brain to save memories for life.
It is noted that previous attempts to understand how long-term memory works were focused on the study of individual molecules. Neurons are known to store information in memory as a structure of strong and weak synapses. However, the molecules in the synapses are unstable: they constantly move around neurons, wear out and are replaced within hours or days. In the new work, scientists have revealed the principle of joint work of molecules in the formation of long-term memory.
The most important molecule for strengthening synapses in mammals is the protein kinase M-zeta (PKMzeta): but this enzyme is destroyed after a few days. The researchers found that KIBRA is the "missing link" in long-term memory: the molecule serves as a "permanent synaptic label" or "glue" that attaches to strong synapses and to PKMzeta, while avoiding weak synapses.
During memory formation, synapses involved in this process are activated. KIBRA is selectively placed at these synapses, and PKMzeta then attaches to the KIBRA synaptic label, making synapses more resistant to change. This allows synapses to connect to the newly created KIBRA, attracting even more new PKMzeta molecules.
Breaking the KIBRA-PKMzeta bond erases old memories. Previous studies have shown that an accidental increase in PKMzeta levels in the brain enhances weak or faded memories. This was a mystery, since in theory there would have to be a reverse effect. However, the presence of KIBRA explains this process: the molecule binds only to strong synapses, which strengthens memories.[3]
Brain can store 10 times more data than thought
In early June 2024, a new University of Chicago study emerged that confirms that the brain can store nearly 10 times more information than previously thought.
As with computers, the brain's memory capacity is measured in "bits," and the number of bits it can store depends on connections between neurons, known as synapses. Previously, scientists believed that the range of values for the size and strength of synapses is not so large, which, in turn, limits the amount of memory in the brain. However, this theory has come under question in recent years.
In the new study, researchers developed a highly accurate method to assess the strength of synaptic connections between neurons using the rat brain as an example. These connections provide a framework for learning and memory as brain cells communicate at these points, allowing them to store data and share information.
Human brain neurons are connected through more than 100 trillion synapses. As we learn, the amount of information transmitted through certain synapses gradually grows. This "strengthening" of synapses allows us to store new information.
The researchers looked at strengthening and weakening synaptic connections and showed that they could store 10 times more information than previously thought. Analysis of rat synapses from the hippocampal region showed that they could store 4.1 to 4.6 bits of information. Scientists believe that the new analysis method will allow, on the new side, to study the mechanisms of not only learning, but also aging and diseases that affect the synaptic connections of the brain.
 | These mechanisms underlie the ability of neural circuits to process information, says Jai Yu, assistant professor of neurophysiology at the University of Chicago. - Now we have the opportunity to evaluate the amount of information transmitted by synapses, and this is an important step in the study of thinking[4] |  |
2023: Proven for the first time - memory of the past and memory of the future are in different parts of the brain
On October 23, 2023, American researchers from Cornell University proved for the first time in the world that the memory of the past and the memory of the future are in different parts of the brain. This discovery in perspective could lead to the emergence of new methods of treating neurodegenerative ailments, in particular Alzheimer's disease.
Scientists focused on the hippocampus - this is part of the limbic system of the brain, involved in the mechanisms of the formation of emotions, memory consolidation, etc. In Alzheimer's disease and other forms of dementia, it is the hippocampus that becomes one of the first brain structures to lose their functions. In particular, there is a loss of short-term memory and disorientation.
As part of the study, experts revealed the difference between the role of the hippocampus in two memory functions: one remembers the associations between time, place and what a person did, and the other allows you to predict or plan future actions based on previous experience. The results of scientific work suggest that these two problems, encoded in the hippocampus, can be separated. In particular, experts have found that these aspects of memory and cognition are supported by two different neural codes.
One type of code controls the ability to create associations, such as remembering that apples are sold at a nearby grocery store. Another kind of neural code is predictive and assumes the ability to flexibly use memory to plan actions, for example, to select an alternative route to the store if the main road is blocked. However, it was not clear exactly how the hippocampus supports these functions or whether there was any connection between them.
In experiments on rats, scientists deployed a system with multiple electrodes to track neuronal activity while rodents performed certain actions. The team then used optogenetics to control neuronal activity very precisely. Scientists used a special virus and, as a result, were able to act on certain neurons without changing the general properties of the brain. The researchers, in particular, showed that in this way it is possible to preserve the associative aspects of memory, but suppress the predictive component.[5]
Kak does memory work?
The physiological basis of memory is the "traces" of previously former nervous processes that persist in the brain. Any nerve process caused by external irritation (for example, the transfer of an image of a pattern to the brain) does not pass for the nervous tissue without a trace, but leaves a "trace" in it in the form of certain functional changes. Thus, when certain information is perceived, a connection is formed between some groups of neurons, which encodes this information. And the more often this information enters the brain, the more often the nerve impulse passes through the connection and the more the connection is "fixed."
When we see, for example, the drawing again, the nerve impulse will pass along a familiar path and the connection between certain neurons will become even stronger, and so on.
According to the latest research for 2020, the material carrier of information about different events is not the excitation of different neurons, but various complexes of neural networks, which are formed at the time of perception of information.
Below is a recording of an experiment on this topic: here neurons form new connections between themselves right in the test tube.
Memory capacity
Can a person's brain run out of memory space?
Maybe. But not a single person has survived to this point.
In your memory brain, about 2 quadrillion bytes - if you imagine that your brain is a video camera, which was turned on for round-the-clock recording in good quality, then there will be enough space for 300 years. The limit is in life, not in memory.
How information is stored
There is no central store of information in the brain - the data is distributed in a complex and confusing synaptic network, which for 2020 we still know very little about.
Each fragment of memory (word, view, feeling) is encoded in the area that created it (temporal or occipital lobe, limbic system) and is activated every time it comes to mind.
Metamemory
In addition to memory, we also have meta-memory, where everything that we remember (or should remember) is stored, and what not.
The similarity of the brain device, or rather the memory block, with the computer for 2020 is becoming more and more obvious.
In the brain there is an analogue of the list of lists. This meta-memory is responsible for the deja vu effect and "what is the name of this actor who was filming there?." The researchers found that such a file cabinet is located in our prefrontal cortex.
Functional areas
In 2019, more than fifty functional centers of the brain were found.
Frontal lobes
Anterior frontal lobes - command center
Sending a single order to the muscle to contract is simple. But making sure that all these reductions produce a targeted action is much more difficult!
To catch a flying ball, bring a fork to your mouth or walk, the brain must plan all the necessary actions.
He needs to know what the purpose of movement is, how to position the body in space, which muscles to contract for this...
This planning of the necessary actions takes place in the frontal lobe. Its neurons are in constant contact with other zones, in particular those responsible for vision and memory.
The front of the frontal lobe first creates an image of the necessary movement. From there, orders go a little back to the area controlling the muscles. And she, in turn, turns to the corresponding motor region.
The anterior frontal lobes control so-called executive functions of the brain, such as RAM, control over the execution of prohibitions (in fact, the ability to respond outside the box to achieve a goal).
Deferred satisfaction (the ability to forgo reward to gain more in the future), cognitive flexibility (the ability to cope with multiple tasks simultaneously), rational behavior, planning, and more.
And the personality itself is for the most part formed here, in the prefrontal cortex.
Brock Center: Speechless
The first functional center of the cerebral cortex was discovered in 1861 by the French scientist Paul Broca, who studied the human brain during an autopsy, due to an accident that was completely speechless.
He drew attention to the fact that the left frontal zone of the studied brain was damaged. It is now known that this particular area, called Brock's centre, is essential for speech.
Wernicke Center: Word Recognition
German scientist Karl Wernicke discovered a functional center responsible for word recognition. When it is damaged, a person cannot understand what he has heard. This center also received the name of its discoverer - center Wernicke.
The myth of the dominance of one of the hemispheres
Some time ago, biologists believed that hemispheres perform completely different tasks and that in the brain one of the hemispheres dominates and plays a leading role.
It was this hypothesis that formed the basis of the myth that there are "left-handed" people capable of mathematics and logic, and "right-handed," created for creativity and art. For 2020, this is believed to be complete nonsense.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a precious inheritance received by man from his ancestors.
Occupying just 10% of the brain's volume, it includes 69 billion neurons, while the cortex has only 20 billion. The secret to such a high density is that about 46 billion cells in the cerebellum are granular, the tiniest neurons in existence.
The role of the cerebellum is truly impossible to overstate. He works in constant contact with the cortex of the brain, they work almost in pairs: the cerebellum participates not only in managing the motor functions for which it was created by nature, but also in regulating the new cognitive functions that have appeared in humans.
Amygdala
Perhaps this is the most sexually dimorphic brain structure, and it is the tonsils that store the differences between the male and female brains.
Mental trauma sustained in war or the experience of sexual assault can physically damage the almond body for a sufficiently short period of time.
Current brain "photographing" technology has shown that malfunctions in amygdala-like bodies, of genetic origin, or triggered by nerve impulse failure, can underlie anxiety states, autism, depression, phobias and PTSD.
Energy consumption
The brain needs less electricity than a light bulb in the refrigerator.
If you take basal metabolism (i.e., metabolism at rest) for 1300 kilocalories, then during the day we consume about 56 calories per hour, that is, 63 watts/hour. The brain consumes 20%, which is approximately 12.6 watts/hour, although it does much more than a dim light bulb on the back of the refrigerator.
Although the brain is extremely economical compared to mechanical means, in biological terms it is an insatiable energy consumer.
The weight of the brain is only about 2-3% of the total body weight (1.2 kg), but it consumes one sixth (17%) of the body's total energy.
20% - so much oxygen from the total amount consumed by a person is necessary for the work of the brain.
Most of the energy goes to maintaining a state of readiness for thinking. To do this, the brain needs to provide an electric field in the membrane of each neuron, allowing it to communicate with other neurons.
Blood circulation
Each minute, 750 milliliters of blood passes through the brain, accounting for 15-20 percent of all blood flow.
Brain size and intelligence
2021: A device for controlling mental acuity entered the market
At the end of September 2021, Neurolign, which specializes in clinical eye tracking and neurofunctional diagnostics, released the consumer device NeurolignFit, which uses professional eye tracking technology to allow users to track, understand and improve their overall mental acuity from the comfort of their homes. Read more here.
2020: The link between brain size and intelligence
When they talk about the connection between intelligence and brain size, they usually clarify that the size of the brain is not the main thing, but most importantly - the connections between neurons and the ability of the brain to tear and form interneuron connections depending on current cognitive needs. On the other hand, the more neurons, the more opportunities for inter-neural connections, and in the large brain there are still more neurons than in the small one. That is, there should still be a connection between brain size and cognitive abilities.
The largest study on this topic was conducted by employees of the University of Pennsylvania. They conducted an MRI scan of the brain of more than 13 thousand people. The researchers were able to find a positive relationship between brain size and the performance of cognitive tests, but its value was not decisive, and this relationship accounted for no more than 2% of success, which may well be a banal statistical error.
For 2020, it is believed that even if size affects intelligence, it is very insignificant. For example, the upbringing of parents, the level of education, nutrition, the amount of stress in life and the like affect intelligence 100, or even 1,000 times more, and these relationships have long been proven. In support of this opinion, a photo of a comparison of the brain of a person and a dolphin is cited. Dolphin on the left.
Stand-alone time control
The brain is a product of natural selection and is therefore "made" so that its owner can survive in a rigid and endlessly changing world.
It turns out that the best way to succeed in this world is to learn to predict what will happen in the future and when. Therefore, the brain is a machine that both predicts the future and determines time.
The brain counts time in the range of more than 12 orders of magnitude - from the minimum time interval with which the sound reaches the left and right ears, to the change of seasons.
The clock exists within us.
The brain and body of humans and other animals are able to determine the time: even a separate liver cell can report what time of day it is.
Differences in the brain of women and men
Men have a slightly heavier brain - weighing almost 1,400 grams, while a woman averages about 1,300. Women have more white matter and men have more grey.
White matter is responsible for the connections between hemispheres and all parts of the brain. Without white matter, the brain would not be able to work harmoniously. Another function of white matter operation is data transfer. Gray matter is responsible for the perception of the world, memory, speech of a person and his feelings. It is difficult to say who is more fortunate, but both men and women have their advantages.
Son
Main article: Human Son
Consciousness
Main article: Consciousness
Brain freezing
2024: For the first time, it was possible to defrost without damage the human brain, frozen 1.5 years ago
In mid-May 2024, Chinese researchers at Fudan University in Shanghai announced the development of a new technology that allows freezing human brain tissue, followed by thawing without damage. The achievement opens up new possibilities for studying the brain and nervous system. Read more here.
Formation of "reality"
Creating a Body Image and the Outside World
It is well known that with an undisturbed state of consciousness, we clearly imagine what our body looks like.
This seems obvious, however, a lot of evidence shows that the image of our body, as well as the image of the outside world, actively created by the brain.
Hormones: Default setting for feeling dissatisfied
"Hormones of happiness" (dopamine, serotonin, oxytocin and endorphin) are produced in the brain with one single goal: to motivate a person to strive for situations in which the synthesis of these substances occurs.
We inherited the survival mechanism from our prehistoric ancestors. It is based on a constant search for what will allow us to feel better.
Chemical compounds that cause a feeling of joy are produced at the moment when we get what we want (food, reward, public approval, the opportunity to raise our status, and so on).
Then their level drops, and we, feeling dissatisfaction, are forced to do something else to experience positive emotions again.
Fear
Main article: Fear
Yawning
Why is yawning so infectious?
There are several hypotheses explaining why yawning is "transmitted" from one person to another. Often this process is associated with the activity of mirror neurons, but there is no consensus on the nature of the phenomenon for 2019. Researchers at the University of Nottingham linked yawn infectiousness to primary motor cortex activity and individual human motor excitability.
The study involved 36 adult volunteers. They were shown videos of yawning people. The participants received different instructions: some of the volunteers were asked to restrain yawning, and some, on the contrary, were urged to yawn as much as they wanted. Instructions have changed several times. The researchers calculated the number of yawns and attempts to suppress them in both groups. During the test, scientists applied a transcranial magnetic stimulation method, which allows non-invasive action on various areas of the cerebral cortex. The process itself is seen below in the photo.
When the volunteer was asked to hold back, the desire to yawn increased. Exposure to the brain with transcranial magnetic stimulation also made it easier for people to succumb to the urge to repeat the movement. Scientists explained the individual tendency to "infection" with yawning by the activity of the primary motor cortex of the brain. This zone is involved in the regulation of muscle movements in the human body. According to the researchers, it depends on the activity of this site how much a person is exposed to the infectious effects of yawning.
Reading thoughts
Main article: Reading thoughts
How to protect your brain as you age
The most effective way to maintain brain health as you age turned out to be something you might never have thought of - physical activity.
Neurons need support to do their job properly, and an aging circulatory system can cause a decrease in the supply of blood that supplies the brain with oxygen and glucose.
Regular exercise, which increases heart rate, is the only and most useful way to support your cognitive abilities in old age.
People who regularly exercise in middle age are three times less likely to suffer from Alzheimer's disease after the age of 60 than those who did not exercise at all. Even starting classes after the age of 50, you can reduce this risk by half.
It is enough to study for half an hour, several times a week.
Diabetes accelerates brain aging by 26%
In late May 2022, scientists at the University of New York at Stoney Brook demonstrated that normal brain aging accelerates by about 26% in people with advanced type 2 diabetes compared to people without the disease. The study authors assessed the association between normal brain aging and aging seen in type 2 diabetes and observed that in type 2 diabetes, neurodegeneration proceeds similarly to aging but faster. Read more here.
Diagnostics
Diseases and injuries
Encephalopathy
Microcephaly
Microcephaly - a significant reduction in the size of the skull and, accordingly, the brain at normal sizes of other parts of the body.
Traumatic brain injuries
Concussion
Brain stroke
Epilepsy
Faint
Main article: Fainting
Subdural hematoma
This type of hemorrhage results from vascular damage (predominantly venous) between the meninges. Considered dangerous damage that carries a potential threat to life of the patient.
A local accumulation of blood is formed between the two meninges (in most cases between the hard and soft). If such a hematoma increases, it is expressed in a progressive fading of consciousness.
Superpowers after injuries
Hallucinations
The brain of any person has the ability to "complete" the picture of what is happening. Hallucinations occur when enhancing the normal functioning of the brain when assessing what is happening. Based on the information and forecasts already available, the brain gives out a non-existing picture - hallucination.
The brain of any person has the ability to "complete" the picture of what is happening, relying on incomplete and ambiguous information. For example, noticing a moving spot in a poorly lit room, a person can easily guess that this is his cat. In this case, new visual data will play a minimal role (as opposed to background knowledge). However, a side effect of the "predictive brain" is the tendency to see things that don't actually exist, i.e. hallucinations. This kind of distorted perception is not unique to mentally ill people. According to scientists, almost every person has heard or seen something illusory.
The emergence of key symptoms of mental illness can be understood as a shift in the equilibrium of normal brain functions. More importantly, such symptoms and sensations point not to a "broken" brain, but to a brain that tries - most naturally - to make sense of ambiguous data.
Brain surgery
2023: Russia starts using passive cortical mapping to keep it working after operations
Russian scientists conducted the first neurosurgical operations using passive mapping of the speech zones of the brain (without electrical stimulation). This was reported in February 2023 at the Federal Center for Brain and Neurotechnologies (FCMN) of the FMBA of the Russian Federation. Read more here.
Remove one of the hemispheres
Scanned image of brain structure (MRI) of a seven-year-old girl who was surgically removed from the left hemisphere of the brain at the age of 3 due to Rasmussen encephalitis.
Such surgical operations can save children's lives if performed early enough. Since the brain at this age is very plastic, the ability to speech moved to the right hemisphere.
Note, however, that her brainstem and thalamus were unaffected. Brainstem is responsible for vital functions and cannot be removed. The girl can play and speak and has mild motor function disorders on the right.
How to calm a patient: stimulating a "happy" part of the brain
Brain surgery is an extremely complex process in which it is sometimes important for patients to remain conscious.
This is necessary so that the surgeon can speak to the person at any time and make sure that his language, sensory and emotional functions work correctly.
{{# https://www.tadviser.ru/images/4/46/IMG 4333.MP4|100%|auto||Patient plays violin during brain surgery, 2020}
Of course, during this very alarming and unpleasant time, the patient can panic, so scientists are constantly looking for the safest method of calming them down. In 2019, it turned out that patients' panic can be alleviated by stimulating a special section of the brain responsible for laughter and euphoria.
Recently, it was found that stimulating a brain region called Cingulum makes patients laugh and experience a "pleasant, relaxed feeling." This area of the brain encircles the middle brain from the frontal to temporal lobe and has previously been suspected of participating in the development of depression.
Perhaps soon the relaxing feature of this part of the brain will be allowed to be used during brain surgery on some patients.
Anomalies
Absence of one of the hemispheres
The brain has a striking ability to change and adapt, and this is proved by a small group of people who had half their brain removed as children to ease epileptic seizures.
Despite the absence of an entire brain hemisphere, these people live and function normally because the remaining half has strengthened and strengthened.
MRI data showed that in patients with one hemisphere of the brain, its areas work no worse than in people with an entire brain, the former even have stronger neural connections!
This proves that the brain is able to compensate for the loss of a large part of it.
Earlier in 2020, such a person was found in the Moscow region. When the man was admitted to the hospital with an ischemic attack, the doctors were shocked! On CT, they found that his brain was half intact! This feature did not prevent the man from living for more than 60 years, getting a higher education, serving in the army and starting a family. He never had any abnormalities...
Human brain models
2023: A chip with human brain cells inside is created. He knows how to play games
In mid-July 2023, it became known that Australian researchers from Monash University created a semi-biological computer chip called DishBrain, which contains approximately 800 thousand human and mouse brain cells. The decision confirmed its intellectual ability by learning to play Pong in five minutes. Read more here.
2021: Cortical Labs researchers create 'mini brain' that consists of nearly a million living cells
Cortical Labs researchers have created a "mini brain," which consists of nearly a million living cells, in a petri dish. In the system, human brain cells were placed over microelectrodes that stimulated them and analyzed neural activity. This became known on December 19, 2021. Read more here.
2020: Russian students create 'phantom' of human brain from hydrogel
A team of NUST MISIS students has developed a "phantom" of the human brain - a hydrogel model with a structural and mechanical similarity to a real organ. "Phantomozg" will allow students to study the pathological anatomy of tissues, and practicing neurosurgeons to conduct training surgery. On July 2, 2020, NUST MISIS reported Zdrav.Expert. Read more here.
Chronicle
2024
Why spicy food makes people happy. Scientific explanation
Many people's addiction to spicy food can be associated with the antifungal and antibacterial properties of eating with capsaicin, an alkaloid found in various types of capsicum. This is stated in the study, the results of which TAdviser got acquainted with at the end of September 2024. Read more here
Football is harmful. How even light headbutts on the ball affect the brain. Scientific explanation
On September 24, 2024, Canadian scientists from the University of British Columbia (UBC) released the results of a study saying that even light head strikes on the ball while playing football provoke changes in brain activity. The findings could help develop future safety protocols and recommendations for different sports.
In the study, eight healthy adults performed controlled headbutts on a soccer ball with a force comparable to that typically seen during play. At the same time, the subjects wore electroencephalography sensors (EEG) and special capps, which simultaneously monitored brain activity and head movement. It was established that participants at the moments of impact had a short-term but statistically significant increase in brain delta waves - low-frequency waves associated with sleepiness and sleep.
| | When this sleep-like delta activity occurs while awake, it can disrupt information processing and lead to impaired attention. For athletes, this can mean a decrease in concentration after impact, says Dr. Lyndia Wu, head of work. | |
In most participants, brain activity quickly returned to normal, indicating no long-term effects. However, some subjects showed more pronounced changes: this indicates individual differences in the brain's response to head strikes. The scientists also assessed how the strength and direction of the impacts affected brain activity. It turned out that stronger impacts lead to a greater increase in the intensity of delta waves, while oblique impacts provoke increased activity on the opposite side of the head.[6]
How the brain works for lovers. Scientific explanation
At the end of August 2024, specialists from the University of Science and Technology of China published the results of a study saying that when emotions are perceived, romantic couples show greater synchronization both in behavior and brain activity than close friends. This sheds light on the features of the brain in lovers. Read more here
How the brain perceives music. Scientific explanation
In mid-July 2024, the results of a study explaining the mechanism of perception of music by the brain were released. Experts have found that this process is associated with the sequential activation of several specific areas.
Staff from Aarhus University's Centre for Brain Music and Oxford University's Centre for Eudemony and Human Prosperity took part. 83 volunteers aged 19 to 63 years were selected for the study: all of them had normal hearing and had mainly higher education. At the first stage, the subjects were asked to remember a short piece of music. Participants then underwent an auditory recognition test, during which their brain activity was analyzed through magnetoencephalography (MEG). This technology allows you to measure and visualize magnetic fields arising from the electrical activity of the brain.
The recognition task consisted of 135 five-tone musical sequences, some identical to the original work, and others systematically changed. The researchers found that in the case of the original musical fragments, activity in the brain was initiated according to a certain hierarchical scheme. First, the auditory cortex (the area responsible for processing sound information) was activated, and then the hippocampus and cingulate gyrus, which are associated with memory and cognitive assessment, were connected.
If the musical sequence was changed, prediction errors occurred. They first appeared in the auditory cortex and then extended to the hippocampus, anterior cingulate gyrus, and ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Thus, the authors of the work managed to establish in what order certain areas of the brain respond to music. The long-term goals of this study are to create dementia screening tools based on the brain's response to audible signals.[7]
How the brain responds emotionally to the world around it. Scientific explanation
On July 15, 2024, specialists from the University of California, Berkeley (USA) and Trinity College in Dublin (Ireland) released the results of a study demonstrating how the brain responds emotionally to the world around it. Google employees also took part in the work .
Scientists were able to predict a person's response to different scenes using only brain imaging and computer simulations. At the same time, not only the type of reaction (positive, negative or neutral) was assessed, but also how strong it is. In the course of the study, volunteers were shown different images that could cause certain emotions - for example, photographs of an evil dog, a baby or a person who is sick. Participants were asked to evaluate the images as positive, negative or neutral and report the degree of emotional arousal. The three-dimensional brain activity of the subjects was analyzed by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
Analysis of cerebral activity showed that occipital temporal cortex is responsible for all types of reactions. It is she who reacts to different categories of stimuli, and also defines them. At the same time, images with different emotional components cause activity in different zones of the occipital-temporal cortex. In other words, positive persons with high arousal provoke a response in somewhat different areas than negative persons with high arousal or neutral persons with low arousal.
Based on the data obtained, the researchers created a neural network capable of determining a person's response to a particular image by the activity of zones in the occipital-temporal cortex. Artificial intelligence successfully coped with the task.[8]
A neuromodeling laboratory is being launched in Russia - for brain research using AI
On May 27, 2024, Donskoy State Technical University (DSTU) announced the formation of the Medical Digital Images Based on the Basis Model laboratory. We are talking about a neuromodeling site for conducting research on biological samples using artificial intelligence. Read more here.
Siberian scientists have grown "mini-brains"
Scientists at the ICG SB RAS have grown "mini-brains" - cerebral 3D organoids, three-dimensional tissues, similar in structure to certain parts of real organs. The press service of the institute announced this on February 7, 2024. Read more here.
A revolutionary mechanism has been discovered that protects the brain from aging
On January 31, 2024, American researchers from Indiana University reported the discovery of a mechanism that could protect the brain from aging. The findings may play a crucial role in preventing various neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's and Parkinson's, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Read more here.
How love changes the brain - the world's first study
On January 9, 2024, experts from the Australian National University, the University of Canberra and the University of South Australia released the results of the world's first study explaining how love changes the brain. It turned out that during falling in love, the brain differently perceives the world around it. Read more here.
2023
What happens to the brain during depression. Scientific justification
The main cause of depression is genetically determined disorders of the metabolism of biogenic amines. This was announced on November 15, 2023 by Russian specialists from the First Moscow State Medical University named after I.M. Sechenov of the Ministry of Health of Russia (Sechenov University). Read more here.
MachineMD creates neuro-ophthalmoscope for non-invasive brain assessment
The Swiss company MachineMD, which specializes in the production of medical equipment, has developed a neuro-ophthalmoscope designed to non-invasively assess the state of the brain and identify possible abnormalities. Read more here.
A laboratory for the study of the brain was opened in a Siberian medical university for 15 million rubles
In October 2023, on the basis of the Department of Normal Physiology of the Siberian State Medical University (SibSMU), a scientific and educational laboratory of cognitive neurophysiology of psychosomatic relations was opened. It will study the fundamental mechanisms of the brain and cognitive functions in conditions of information loads, as well as create "breakthrough developments in this area," the press service of the university said. Read more here.
3D printing of nerve tissue treats brain injuries
On October 4, 2023, British researchers from the University of Oxford announced the development of a new technology for 3D printing of nervous tissue that mimics the structure of the cerebral cortex. The method is expected to help in the treatment of various injuries and neurodegenerative diseases in the future. Read more here.
A blood component that rejuvenates the brain has been identified
On August 16, 2023, US researchers from the University of California, San Francisco reported that they were able to identify a blood component that causes a rejuvenating effect on the brain. The achievement paves the way for the development of new treatments for age-related cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.
Earlier, experts from the University of California found that the blood of young mice, when transfused into the body of old rodents, is able to rejuvenate the brain, in particular, to improve learning abilities. However, it was not clear which blood component caused this effect. As part of the new work, scientists have found that the so-called platelet factor 4 (PF4), a chemokine that promotes blood clotting and wound healing, is involved in the rejuvenation process.
Experts drew attention to the fact that young mice have a higher level of PF4 in the blood than older rodents. Then the project participants began to inject PF4 into old mice without adding other blood components. It turned out that the ratio of different types of immune cells in the body of rodents has changed - it has become more similar to what is usually observed in young mice. Moreover, some immune cells have returned to the younger nature of gene expression.
Although PF4 cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, its overall effects on the immune system result in changes in the brain through indirect mechanisms. Older mice treated with doses of PF4 showed reduced inflammation in the hippocampus - a part of the brain that is particularly vulnerable to the effects of aging. In addition, rodents showed an increase in the concentration of molecules that contribute to synaptic plasticity (the ability to change the strength of connections between nerve cells). Older mice injected with PF4 performed better in cognitive tests, such as memorizing information, compared to their peers.[9]
Mentality
Notes
- ↑ SFU researchers exploit the body’s innate drive for safety to improve motor memory
- ↑ Brain found to store three copies of every memory
- ↑ How do our memories last a lifetime? New study offers a biological explanation
- ↑ [1]The brain can store nearly 10 times more data than previously thought, study confirms
- ↑ Role of hippocampus in two functions of memory revealed
- ↑ Soccer headers briefly slow brain activity, study shows
- ↑ New research uncovers brain hierarchies in music perception
- ↑ New study shows how the brain reacts emotionally to the real world
- ↑ Older mouse brains rejuvenated by protein found in young blood
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