Artificial intelligence research in Russia

The main articles are:

• Artificial intelligence research
• Artificial Intelligence (Russian market)
• Artificial intelligence

2024

The Ministry of Economic Development has identified 10 areas of artificial intelligence research

At the end of May 2024, the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia identified ten priority areas of research in the field of artificial intelligence. This decision was made as part of a strategic forsythe session, the results of which were summed up in the Coordination Center of the Russian Government.

According to the ministry, the main areas were: machine learning architectures and algorithms, calculations and data for AI, fundamental and generative models, human-AI interaction, as well as applied research for science, education and the social sphere. The session was attended by key figures, including Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko and Deputy Minister of Economic Development Maxim Kolesnikov, as well as experts from leading universities and business representatives.

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The implementation of the updated national AI development strategy until 2030, approved by the president in February 2024, will allow achieving an economic effect of up to ₽11,2 trillion by this time. According to Chernyshenko, artificial intelligence is becoming a driver for various industries, ensuring the development of the supply economy and improving the quality of life. An important aspect is the support of basic science, which is confirmed by the discovery of 12 research centers, where about a thousand scientists work on the adaptation of generative AI.

Maxim Kolesnikov noted that the main task set by the President is to identify and support fundamental research that will bring the greatest effect for the long-term development of AI.

Leonid Gokhberg, First Vice-Rector of the Higher School of Economics, emphasized the high dynamics of changes in the field of AI and the speed of converting research results into new products and services. According to him, the forsyth session demonstrated the importance of fundamental research and the tight timing of their implementation.^[1]

Researchers at Sberbank and the AIRI Institute have figured out how to improve chemical language models

Researchers at Sberbank and the AIRI Institute have proven that large language models do not know chemistry as well as is commonly believed. Sberbank announced this on June 3, 2024.

Neural network language models already solve a wide range of problems in the field of natural sciences. In chemistry, they are used for automatic data processing, for example, to synthesize new and better understand existing molecules. In this approach, atoms are represented as letters, and molecules are composed of these letters of words. The model creates a textual description of the characteristic chemical properties of the molecule (solubility in water, belonging to a certain class of substances, etc. The scientists tried to find out whether the quality of the model-generated description of the molecule changes depending on the original request.

The study showed that even a slight change in the input word reduces the reliability of the description that the AI model prepares and increases the number of errors, including when generating a description of the molecule. The simplest knowledge from a school chemistry course is enough to deceive chemical language models, increasing the number of their errors by an order of magnitude when solving problems of understanding chemical structures, for example, the problem of generating a description of a molecule.

The result can lead to a deep revision of the existing approach to automatic processing of chemical data, which, in turn, will lead to an increase in the reliability of neural network chemical models.

{{quote 'author = said Andrey Belevtsev, Senior Vice President, Head of the Technological Development Unit of Sberbank. | Neural network models help chemists describe molecules, predict the results of chemical reactions, synthesize new compounds, and so on. Scientists are interested in the further development of such models, but for this you need to clearly understand their weaknesses. Our study found that so far AI models are unstable to the simplest identical transformations of input molecules. Thus, in order to improve the reliability of neural network chemical models, it is necessary to radically revise the approach to automatic processing of chemical data,}}

{{quote 'author = noted Ivan Oseledets, Director General of the AIRI Institute of Artificial Intelligence, Professor Skoltech. | In the field of chemistry, LLMs can be used for tasks such as drug discovery, predicting chemical properties, or reactions. LLMs can help chemists develop new molecules with specific properties by creating virtual libraries of compounds and offering potential candidates for synthesis. For AI models to become a full-fledged tool in the laboratory, and not one of the options that can be tried for the sake of interest, then spending many hours checking the result, it is important to investigate and simulate all potential use cases. By studying how LLMs perform specific tasks, they can be improved in accuracy, efficiency, and reliability,}}

The authors of the study continue to work in this direction. It is planned to develop a metric to match the representations of molecules in hidden layers of networks. In the future, language models of other classes and architectures will be considered and a metric will be created to compare the level of knowledge of chemistry in different models.

Scientists are confident that in the future, strong AI models will free researchers from the need to describe the properties of new synthesized molecules, accelerate the development of new drugs and allow the creation of fundamentally new drugs.

Ministry of Digital Development of the Russian Federation creates a single center for security research in the field of AI

In early April 2024, it became known that the Ministry of Digital Development of the Russian Federation was creating a single center for security research in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). According to the deputy head of the department, Alexander Shoitov, work on the CERT (computer emergency response team) project in the field will be introduced jointly with interested participants.

Taking into account the fact that AI security issues in individual companies and government agencies are developing, the creation of a single center for information security research (information security) of artificial intelligence as a single point of research is necessary, - Shoytov's comment is quoted by Vedomosti.

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Anna Kulashova, Managing Director of Kaspersky Lab in Russia and the CIS countries, believes that Russia needs a single center for security research in the field of AI. In terms of classical cybersecurity, a regular check of secure software development algorithms is carried out, the same may apply to algorithms for using AI for development, verification and monitoring, she noted.

CERT is an incident response team that can include organizations and specialists with suitable qualifications, says Igor Bederov, head of the investigation department at T.Hunter, market expert at NTI SafeNet (Seifnet). With the average market cost of public sector specialists and taxes, taking into account the cost of rent, equipment, software and depreciation, the content of CERT can cost about 25-30 million rubles. per month, the expert estimates.

Participants in the information security market interviewed by the publication note many threats to the use of AI by attackers. If this load shifts to the existing CERTs in Russia, "they will not have enough resources and competencies," believes Ivan Lindberg, CEO of the Share company, market expert at NTI SafeNet.^[2]

2023

As in Russia, artificial intelligence research is carried out on public money. Results of the year

In May 2024, 12 research centers created with the support of the Government of the Russian Federation within the framework of the federal project "Artificial Intelligence" presented the results of their work for 2023 at the expert council of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia.

According to the press service of the Cabinet, in 2023, research centers engaged in the development of projects in the field of artificial intelligence published 52 scientific articles in leading international journals, prepared 65 scientific publications at international conferences, registered about 100 patents for AI development, and also formed 16 AI frameworks.

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Some solutions created in the research center are already used in large companies. Among them are Yandex, Sber and Gazprom Neft, Rostelecom, Kaspersky Lab, ChemRar and AvtoVAZ.

As an example of the commercial implementation of the AI project with the participation of the research center, the government press service cites the introduction by Gazprom Neft of the developed Skoltech ON in to assess the ice situation around the Prirazlomnaya platform in the Pechora Sea. This software module helps to predict weather, waves and ice conditions for 72 hours in advance.

It is also reported that ChemRar began to use software developed by Innopolis University to predict the inhibitory activity of molecules. It is claimed that this system helps to reduce the number of unsuccessful experiments in the development of drugs by five to six times.

The HSE has created a predictive marketing analytics platform for the hotel business. This decision by May 2024 works in 6 hotels in the Leningrad region and Karelia. The platform takes into account over 480 factors and allows hotels to plan and implement marketing programs more efficiently.

As emphasized in the government, research centers will also be actively involved in the implementation of the national project "Data Economics and Digital Transformation of the State." They will solve the problems of developing large generative models for the sectors of the economy, as well as training personnel with appropriate qualifications, which should strengthen Russia's leading scientific position in the world in the field of AI, the cambin said.

According to Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko, the government, within the framework of the federal project "Artificial Intelligence," has allocated about 4 billion rubles to support research centers in three years. During this time, AI centers have become the flagships of scientific activities in the field of artificial intelligence, they are engaged in fundamental and applied research, training specialized specialists, the formation of data sets and support for industry frameworks, said the Deputy Prime Minister.

The Minister of Economic Development Maxim Reshetnikov in May 2024 stressed that the level of introduction of AI technologies in the sectors of the economy over the past two years has grown one and a half times, and a number of them demonstrate breakthrough results. The head of the Ministry of Economic Development associated this success with the presence in Russia of leading AI companies, strong personnel and a rapidly developing scientific school.

Selected research centers in the field of artificial intelligence are ambitious programs and development plans, specific applied results and maximum scaling of technological solutions to entire industries. Their work also allows expanding the scientific community of the country - today the centers unite about 1 thousand high-class scientists, - added Reshentnikov.[3]

6 centers selected in Russia that will receive 5 billion rubles for research in the field of AI

At the end of December 2023, six centers were selected in Russia, which will receive 5 billion rubles (taking into account extrabudgetary funding) for research in the field of artificial intelligence (AI).

Support is provided to the following universities: N.N. Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology, Samara University named after Academician S.P. Korolev, Novosibirsk State University, NRNU MEPhI, NNSU named after N.I. Lobachevsky, St. Petersburg State University.

Six centers were selected in Russia, which will receive 5 billion rubles for research in the field of artificial intelligence

Each institution will receive up to 632 million rubles until 2026 for the development of AI. The allocated funds will go to the development of specialized scientific research in the field of artificial intelligence, the development of practical applications based on AI introduced by industrial partners, as well as training specialists in the industry and the creation of industry databases.

According to the head of the department for research centers in the field of AI of the Analytical Center under the government, Sergei Nakvasin, a total of 28 applications from scientific organizations from 17 regions of Russia were submitted. The most popular industry areas for the development of artificial intelligence, which received the largest number of applications, were the digital industry, healthcare, transport and logistics.

On behalf of the President of Russia, we conducted the second wave of selection of research centers in the field of AI in priority sectors of the economy and selected the best applications that passed a multi-stage scientific and methodological examination. The new centers will be actively involved in the scientific agenda within the framework of the updated National Strategy for the Development of AI until 2030, and will also be able to implement large-scale tasks in the field of artificial intelligence together with the existing research centers selected in 2021, "said Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko.[4]

Ministry of Economic Development launched a grant program for research centers in the field of AI for 3.8 billion rubles

On October 30, 2023, the Ministry of Economic Development announced the launch of a second wave of selection of research centers in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). In total, for the period 2023-2026, 3.8 billion rubles were allocated for these purposes in the Russian budget, the press service of the department said.

Each center that has passed the selection procedure will be able to receive up to 17 million rubles for 2023, as well as up to 205 million rubles annually for the next three years, explained Deputy Minister of Economic Development Maxim Kolesnikov.

At the same time, the condition for attracting extra-budgetary funds, as in the competition of the first wave, remains key. Thus, the commitment to co-financing will be at least 30% in 2024, at least 40% in 2025 and at least 50% in 2026, he said, adding that the research centers of the "first wave," which are already receiving state support from 2021, will not be able to take part in the new selection.

Grants will be received by at least six universities and scientific organizations engaged in the development of applied AI solutions with reference to priority sectors of the economy. Also, the centers will be engaged in the training of industry specialists, the formation of data sets. Among the priority sectors of the economy for the selection of centers were:

• health care;
• construction and urban environment;
• agro-industrial complex;
• transport and logistics;
• the digital industry;
• telecommunications;
• ecology and environmental management;
• tourism;
• electric power industry;
• coal industry.

At the end of December 2023, the Presidium of the Government Commission on Digital Development, chaired by Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko, will summarize the selection results and determine the final recipients of support. The selection will be coordinated by the Analytical Center under the Government of the Russian Federation.^[5]

Putin instructed to provide state support to AI centers until 2030 with an emphasis on machine learning algorithms and the development of large language models

The President Russia Vladimir Putin instructed to provide many years of state support to AI the centers. The relevant information was published on the Kremlin website on September 6, 2023.

The Government of the Russian Federation [instructed] to ensure until 2030 the implementation of measures to support the activities of research centers in the field of artificial intelligence, paying particular attention to the need for research on optimizing machine learning algorithms and computing processes, including those related to the development of large language models and technologies of generative artificial intelligence, providing for the annual allocation of budget allocations from the federal budget for the provision of these support measures, the presidential order says.

Vladimir Putin

This must be done by providing annual funding for such support measures from the federal budget. The head of state is waiting for a report until December 1, 2023 and then once a year.

The government, together with the Russian Academy of Sciences, was instructed to monitor the effectiveness of spending budget funds to finance research in the field of AI. A report on this issue should be ready by November 15, 2023.

In addition, Vladimir Putin President ordered to take additional measures to increase the level of competencies in the field of AI specialists of key sectors of the economy and social sphere, as well as specialists in state and municipal management. To do this, it is necessary to ensure from 2024 "the phased use of the educational module" Artificial Intelligence Systems "as part of educational programs of higher education and advanced training programs as a mandatory module." A report on this issue should be prepared by March 1, 2024.^[6]

6 scientific centers in the field of AI will receive support from the Russian government

6 scientific centers in the field of artificial intelligence will receive support from the Russian government. This was announced on August 18, 2023 by Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko.

According to him, by the end of 2023, a second selection of AI projects will be held, which will be able to count on state support in the period from 2024 to 2026.

6 AI science centers to receive government support

Thus, we will support 12 such centers of artificial intelligence with the help of the federal budget, and they all must, of course, interact and expect to work on the tasks that are facing, including the Ministry of Defense, - said the Deputy Prime Minister at the plenary session "Strategic Leadership and Technologies of Artificial Intelligence" within the framework of the forum "Army-2023."

By August 18, 2023, there are 40 scientific and educational organizations in the Russian Federation that conduct and conduct research in the field of AI, among them there are six leading research centers that, together with 26 industrial partners, are developing breakthrough solutions in the field of artificial intelligence, Chernyshenko noted.

He stressed that research centers are developing such solutions in the field of AI as platform services, for example, for diagnostics in medicine, detecting and countering attacks on artificial intelligence systems or, for example, the integrated development of oil and gas fields, "in general, they work in all directions."

As part of the order of Russian President Vladimir Putin to create an intellectual maturity index, it is planned to develop a system for monitoring the creation and results of the use of AI technologies to assess the level of introduction of these technologies in the sectors of the economy and social sphere. Monitoring will allow you to track the development of AI technologies at all stages of their life cycle.^[7]

Ministry of Economic Development: 1.4 billion rubles allocated for the creation of 6 new research centers for the development of AI

Ministry of Economic Development Russia Together with the Analytical Center, by Government of the Russian Federation the end of 2023, it will hold a competition for the selection of new research centers on the basis of leading universities for the formation of technologies. artificial intelligence The head of the department Maxim Reshetnikov announced this on July 19, 2023 at a meeting of the President of the Russian Federation with members of the government.

We plan to open new research centers based on universities. By the end of the year, according to the competition, we will select 6 new centers to support AI technologies for the next 4 years. About 1.4 billion rubles will be allocated for these purposes by 2026, Reshetnikov said.

1.4 billion rubles allocated for the creation of 6 new research centers for the development of AI

By July 2023, HSE ITMO Skoltech Innopolis University RAS MIPT 6 research centers are operating on the basis of leading universities and scientific organizations (,,,,,). They, as reported in the Ministry of Economic Development, are looking for approaches to how to train neural networks on less data, increase the speed of calculations using, and machine learning create its new methods. The curator of the direction is the Deputy Prime Minister. Dmitry Chernyshenko

5.4 billion rubles were allocated from the federal budget for research of existing centers for 4 years. The centers have already attracted about 2.5 billion rubles of private financing. For example, GazpromNeft uses a system of analysis of earth formations in geological exploration in the Far North, which reduces the cost of drilling wells. Hospitals in Tatarstan use a service for analyzing medical images, which increases the accuracy of oncology diagnostics by up to 90%, the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia said.

Earlier, an expert working group chaired by Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko has already chosen several research centers for artificial intelligence, which will receive grant support in the amount of up to 1 billion rubles each. The most popular areas of development of artificial intelligence, which received applications, are: intersectoral AI and AI technologies for various sectors of the economy, AI for optimizing management decisions, AI for medicine, AI for industry.^[8]

2022

State spending on research and development of AI in Russia over the year increased to a new record - 3 billion rubles

The volume of state funding for research and development of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in Russia in 2022 reached a record 3 billion rubles. This indicator was achieved thanks to the tender of the Ministry of Industry and Trade for 2.8 billion rubles, within the framework of which studies of promising technologies, including AI technologies, and their applicability in transport aircraft were ordered. The data is published in the study of the project "Kontur. Bargaining."

According to RIA Novosti with reference to this report, in 2020 and 2021. state funding in the field of scientific research AI also showed a decrease. So, in 2020, a total of 42 tenders worth 986 million rubles were held by state-owned companies and corporations. The largest purchase was the development of AI to control a new generation of spacecraft - the state customer allocated 400 million rubles for it. The next year, the number of purchases increased 4 times, but expenses decreased to 720 million rubles. The largest was the purchase of Oryol State University named after I.S. Turgenev - 84 million rubles. was allocated to create a digital system for monitoring, diagnosing and predicting the state of technical equipment using AI.

The amount of funding for research in the field of AI reached 3 billion rubles

According to Vasily Danilchik, an expert at Kontur Trade, interest in the field of research in the field of AI and the importance of this technology have been repeatedly voiced by the Ministry of Digital Development of the Russian Federation.

According to the National Center for the Development of Artificial Intelligence under the Russian government, among the main difficulties in developing and large-scale implementation of AI solutions in 2022 was a lack of financial resources, as well as information about existing Russian developments.

The use of AI technologies gives tangible social and economic effects, so we expect that by 2025 they will be massively introduced in government and business bodies, "says Sergei Nakvasin, director of the National Center for the Development of Artificial Intelligence under the Russian government. - Moreover, to date, almost all tools for the development of driving factors of AI used in developed countries are also in Russia - this is primarily support for scientific research, development of human resources, as well as support for developers.[9]

Chernyshenko: Funding for artificial intelligence research in Russia increased by 1.8 billion rubles

As it became known in early June 2022, funding for artificial intelligence research in Russia increased by 1.8 billion rubles. Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Chernyshenko announced this at a meeting of the working group on the results of the work of six research centers in the field of AI, which were selected within the framework of the relevant federal project.

According to Vedomosti, the size of extrabudgetary investments that were planned to be attracted from industrial partners until 2024 increased by one and a half times - from 1.4 billion to 2.5 billion rubles. The amount that is planned to be allocated from the budget also increased - by 13%, from 4.7 billion to 5.4 billion rubles.

Chernyshenko: Funding for artificial intelligence research in Russia increased by 1.8 billion rubles

According to a representative of Chernyshenko, who was contacted by the newspaper, the increase in spending on research on artificial intelligence technologies is due to the fact that the initial extrabudgetary funds amounted to "the minimum necessary amount of support." However, in the process of selecting centers, some of them requested co-financing above the minimum, the source explained.

The main task created on the basis of the Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, MIPT, the Ivannikov Institute for System Programming, Innopolis University, ITMO and the Higher School of Economics of the Centers is to develop breakthrough solutions and provide Russia with leadership positions in the field of artificial intelligence on the world stage. In 2021, they received state support in the amount of more than 901 million rubles for the implementation of programs.

Each center is assigned certain applied and educational tasks. According to Dmitry Chernyshenko, it is necessary to strengthen the introduction of applied solutions for artificial intelligence in the real sector and accelerate the digital transformation of priority sectors of the Russian economy.^[10]

Russian scientists have created a biologically plausible memory model for AI systems

On May 11, 2022, Russian scientists from the Institute of Artificial Intelligence AIRI and MIPT announced the creation of a biologically plausible memory model for artificial intelligence systems with internal motivation. A scientific article was published in the journal Brain Informatics. Read more here.

2020

Increase in the number of scientific publications on AI in Russia 2.6 times in 5 years, up to 4.8 thousand

In the period from 2016 to 2020, Russia accounted for about 4.8 thousand scientific publications in the field of artificial intelligence technologies. In comparison with 2011-2015. the indicator increased 2.6 times, and in the world - 1.3 times. This was reported at the Institute for Statistical Research and Economics of Knowledge (ISIEZ) of the Higher School of Economics with reference to the database of scientific citation Web of Science Core Collection. Read more here.

Lag in the number of patents in the field of AI

In 2020, 0.5 patents in the field of AI were issued in Russia per million inhabitants - that is, about 70 patents for the whole country. About the same level, about half of the patent per million people, was recorded, for example, in Brazil.

2017:23 billion rubles spent on research in the field of AI in Russia over 10 years

In the spring of 2017, SAP conducted ^[11] in the field of developing projects using artificial intelligence in Russia.

From 2007 to 2017 in Russia, state and business structures financed 1,386 scientific projects dedicated to artificial intelligence. Most of the projects (1229) are not for profit - they are carried out under federal targeted programs or are paid for by various foundations. This demonstrates that Russian business is still less interested in the development and use of artificial intelligence in its projects.

For ten years, about 23 billion rubles were allocated for research and development in the field of artificial intelligence. Government funding is inferior to other countries - for example, in the United States, about $200 million is allocated annually from the state budget for research in the field of artificial intelligence. It is also worth noting that the level of funding in Russia is low, taking into account the number of projects and the total number of researchers involved (from 6 to 10 thousand people).

The leaders in the amount of state funding are projects for the public sector, the transport industry, defense and security. This indicates that Russia primarily supports projects where results are expected with rapid application in practice. For example, data analysis and various recognition systems help optimize logistical and transportation problems. Current geopolitical challenges also define the urgent need for intelligent systems to modernize the military-industrial complex. Thematic leaders in external investments states are data analysis projects, decision support systems and image and video recognition (the latter topic is also in demand in commercial projects).

In Russia, there are several universities, scientific and commercial organizations that are leaders in the number of projects and financing in various fields:

• In the field of data analysis, the leaders are Moscow State University (17 projects) and ITMO University (19 projects)
• Decision Support Systems - ITMO University (27) and Moscow Economic Institute (12)
• Image and Video Recognition - Institute of Image Processing Systems of the Russian Academy of Sciences (17) and South Russian State University of Economics and Service (13)
• Text and Speech Recognition - Research Institute "Applied Semiotics" (9) and Center for Speech Technologies (9)
• In Russia, there is great potential in the field of training qualified specialists for projects with AI. According to an SAP study, 286 universities have corresponding master's programs, about 50 thousand students study in 65 specialties related to data analysis, machine learning, speech and image recognition, computer linguistics, etc. Over the past five years, more than 200 thousand people have been trained in these programs.

Top 30 organizations in terms of funding, 2014-2020, million rubles.

Industry expertise of the Organization with 5 or more projects for one industry

Expertise of organizations on topics, rating by the number of AI projects

AI-related education programs

• 268 universities
• 65 specialties (master's degree)
• 1,628 departments
• 49,171 students are currently enrolled
• 200,746 people - total flow over 5 years

1970s: An intelligent dictionary on artificial intelligence has been created in the USSR

Until the 1970s, in the USSR, all AI research was conducted within the framework of cybernetics. According to D. A. Pospelov, the sciences of "computer science" and "cybernetics" were mixed at that time, due to a number of academic disputes. Only in the late 1970s did the USSR begin to talk about the scientific direction of "artificial intelligence" as a section of computer science. At the same time, informatics itself was born, subjugating the progenitor to "cybernetics."

In the late 1970s, an intelligent dictionary on artificial intelligence, a three-volume reference book on artificial intelligence and an encyclopedic dictionary on computer science were created, in which the sections "Cybernetics" and "Artificial Intelligence" are included, along with other sections, in computer science.

The term "computer science" in the 1980s became widespread, and the term "cybernetics" gradually disappears from circulation, preserved only in the names of those institutions that arose in the era of the "cybernetic boom" of the late 1950s - early 1960s. This view of artificial intelligence, cybernetics and computer science is not shared by everyone. This is due to the fact that in the West the boundaries of these sciences are somewhat different.

1960s: Research at Moscow State University and the USSR Academy of Sciences

In the USSR, work in the field of artificial intelligence began in the 1960s. At Moscow University and the Academy of Sciences, a number of pioneer studies were carried out, headed by Veniamin Pushkin and D. A. Pospelov.

In 1964, the work of the Leningrad logic of Sergei Maslov, "The Reverse Method for Establishing Derivability in the Classical Calculus of Predicates," was published, which for the first time proposed a method for automatically searching for proof of theorems in the calculus of predicates.

In 1966, V.F. Turchin developed the Refal language of recursive functions.

1832: Semyon Korsakov invents punched cards and 5 "intelligent machines"

College adviser Semyon Nikolaevich Korsakov (1787-1853) set the task of strengthening the capabilities of the mind through the development of scientific methods and devices, echoing the modern concept of artificial intelligence as a natural amplifier.

In 1832, S.N. Korsakov published a description of five mechanical devices he invented, the so-called "intelligent machines," for the partial mechanization of mental activity in search, comparison and classification tasks. For the first time in the history of computer science, Korsakov used perforated cards in the design of his machines, which played a kind of role as knowledge bases, and the machines themselves were essentially the forerunners of expert systems.

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